Slush-ice berms on the west coast of Alaska: Development of a conceptual model of formation based on input from and work with local observers in Shaktoolik, Gambell and Shishmaref, Alaska by Laura Eerkes-Medrano B.A., Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, 1983 M.Sc., Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, 1988 A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Department of Geography ©Laura Eerkes-Medrano, 2017 University of Victoria All rights reserved. This dissertation may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author. Supervisory Committee Slush-ice berms on the west coast of Alaska: Development of a conceptual model of formation based on input from and work with local observers in Shaktoolik, Gambell and Shishmaref, Alaska by Laura Eerkes-Medrano B.A., Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, 1983 M.Sc., Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, 1988 Supervisory Committee Dr. David Atkinson (Department of Geography) Supervisor Dr. Johannes Feddema (Department of Geography) Departmental Member Dr. Henry Huntington (Huntington Consulting) Additional Member ii Abstract Supervisory Committee Dr. David Atkinson (Department of Geography) Supervisor Dr. Johannes Feddema (Department of Geography) Departmental Member Dr. Henry Huntington (Huntington Consulting) Additional Member Bering Sea storms regularly bring adverse environmental conditions, including large waves and storm surges of up to 4 m, to the west coast of Alaska. These conditions can cause flooding, erosion and other damage that affects marine subsistence activities and infrastructure in the low-lying coastal communities. Storm impacts also include interactions with sea ice in various states: large floes, shore-fast ice, the acceleration of sea-ice formation in frazil or slush state, and the formation of slush-ice berms. Slush-ice berms are accumulations of slush ice that develop under the right wind, water level, water and air temperature, and snow conditions. During a strong wind event, large amounts of slush may be formed and pushed onto the shore, where the slush can accumulate, solidify and protect communities from flooding and erosion. Slush ice berms can also be problematic, restricting access to the coast and presenting other hazards. Residents of Shishmaref and Shaktoolik, communities on the west coast of Alaska, observed the formation of slush-ice berms during storms that occurred in 2007, 2009 and 2011. These formations are important to the iii communities, and it would be useful to develop the capacity to predict their occurrence. However, scientific work has not been conducted on this phenomenon, with the result that a physical conceptual model describing the formation of slush-ice berms does not exist. In recognition of this need, a project thesis was designed, and had as its main objective to identify and document the environmental and synoptic weather conditions that lead to these types of events, and to develop a descriptive physical conceptual model of slush-ice berm formation. A key to this work was the engagement of traditional knowledge holders and local observers to gather data and information about slush ice and slush-ice berm formation, along with the specific dates when these events took place. This dissertation is organized around three major elements: development of a conceptual model of slush-ice berm formation; presenting the traditional knowledge gathered that led to the development of this model; and documenting the methods and tools used to engage traditional knowledge holders and local observers in this process. In this dissertation, the knowledge from traditional knowledge holders on slush ice formation is presented in the context of feeding into a physical scientific process – specifically, developing a descriptive physical conceptual model of slush-ice berm formation. It is expected that this type of research will contribute to slush-ice berm forecasting which would aid communities’ safety by improving assessment of environmental risk. iv Table of Contents Supervisory Committee ................................................................................. ii Abstract.. ....................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................ v List of Tables .................................................................................................. ix List of Figures ................................................................................................. x Acknowledgements ..................................................................................... xiii Dedication ...................................................................................................... xv 1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 1 1.1 Research Motivation ...................................................................................9 2 Slush-ice berm formation on the west coast of Alaska .............. 13 2.1 Article information ....................................................................................13 2.1.1 Authors’ names and affiliations ..................................................................... 13 2.1.2 Author’s and coauthors’contributions ........................................................... 14 2.2 Abstract .....................................................................................................14 2.3 Introduction ...............................................................................................16 2.4 Methods .....................................................................................................18 2.4.1 Study sites ...................................................................................................... 19 2.5 Results and Discussion ..............................................................................22 v 2.5.1 Types of Berms .............................................................................................. 23 2.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................35 2.7 Acknowledgements ...................................................................................37 3 Inupiaq and Siberian Yupik perspectives on slush-ice formation on the west coast of Alaska .......................................................................... 49 3.1 Article information ....................................................................................49 3.1.1 Authors’ names and affiliations ..................................................................... 49 3.1.2 Author’s and coauthors’ contributions ........................................................... 49 3.2 Abstract .....................................................................................................50 3.3 Introduction ...............................................................................................52 3.4 Methods .....................................................................................................59 3.5 Results and Discussion ..............................................................................59 3.5.1 Slush-Ice and Slush-Ice Berm Formation Processes ..................................... 60 3.5.2 Factors Contributing to Slush-Ice and Slush-Ice Berm Formation................ 64 3.5.3 Types of Berms .............................................................................................. 67 3.5.4 Slush ice berm formation mechanisms .......................................................... 74 3.5.5 Advantages and Disadvantages from a sea-ice services perspective ............. 77 3.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................78 vi 4 Engaging community and stakeholders in slush-ice berm formation and impactful weather events research in Alaska, USA: A community-centered and feedback-based adaptive approach ................. 87 4.1 Article information ....................................................................................87 4.1.1 Authors’ names and affiliations ..................................................................... 87 4.1.2 Author’s and coauthors’ contributions ........................................................... 87 4.2 Abstract .....................................................................................................87 4.3 Introduction ...............................................................................................88 4.3.1 Preparatory work – Become community focused .......................................... 94 4.3.2 Inviting communities ..................................................................................... 96 4.3.3 Discussing the Project ................................................................................... 99 4.3.4 Interviewing methods .................................................................................. 101 4.3.5 Site Visits ..................................................................................................... 109 4.3.6 Second site visits ......................................................................................... 120 4.3.7 After the Project .......................................................................................... 125 4.4 Discussion ...............................................................................................125 4.4.1 Issues encountered – Before Project Commencement ................................. 126 4.4.2 Issues encountered – During Project Delivery ............................................ 129 4.5 Conclusions .............................................................................................137 5 General Conclusions ................................................................... 142 vii 5.1 Main research results ...............................................................................142 5.2 Conclusion ...............................................................................................147 5.3 Future work .............................................................................................148 References: .................................................................................................. 150 viii List of Tables Table 4.1 Cross-cultural communication. ........................................................................ 105 Table 4.2 Inupiat and American values. ........................................................................... 106 Table 4.3 Differences in communication between Alaska natives and non-natives. ....... 108 ix List of Figures Figure 1.1 Shishmaref: Abandoned house sits on the beach after sliding off during the 2005 fall storm. Credit: Diana Haecker/AP .................................................................................11 Figure 1.2 Shaktoolik: Old power house. ................................................................11 Figure 1.3 Shaktoolik: Concerns about drinking water quality. ............................. 12 Figure 1.4 Gambell: Airstrip. ................................................................................. 12 Figure 2.1 Region of study. .................................................................................... 38 Figure 2.2 Two in-situ slush-ice berms. ................................................................. 39 Figure 2.3 Surface winds (10m height) associated with the in situ slush-ice berm event of 10 November 2012 at Wales, Alaska. .................................................................. 40 Figure 2.4 Sea level pressure associated with the in situ slush-ice berm event of 10 November 2012 at Wales, Alaska. ..................................................................................... 40 Figure 2.5 Surface air temperature (2 m height) associated with the in situ slush-ice berm event of 10 November 2012 at Wales, Alaska. ......................................................... 41 Figure 2.6 Advective slush-ice berm with ice boulders pushed against a deep beach in the old part of town. ....................................................................................................... 42 Figure 2.7 Advective slush-ice berm. ..................................................................... 43 Figure 2.8 Sea level pressure associated with the advective slush-ice berm event of 11 November 2009 at Shaktoolik, Alaska. ......................................................................... 43 Figure 2.9 : Sea level pressure associated with the advective slush-ice berm event of 9 November 2011 at Shaktoolik, Alaska. ........................................................................... 44 x