Florida State University Libraries Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School 2004 Skill Acquisition in Ballet Dancers: The Realationship Between Deliberate Practice and Expertise Carla A. Ureña Follow this and additional works at the FSU Digital Library. For more information, please contact [email protected] THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF EDUCATION SKILL ACQUISITION IN BALLET DANCERS: THE REALATIONSHIP BETWEEN DELIBERATE PRACTICE AND EXPERTISE By CARLA A. UREÑA A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Degree Awarded: Summer Semester, 2004 The members of the Committee approve the Dissertation of Carla A. Ureña defended on June 7, 2004. ___________________________ John Keller Professor Directing Dissertation ___________________________ Anders Ericsson Outside Committee Member ___________________________ Amy Baylor Committee Member __________________________ Natalie Sachs-Ericsson Committee Member ___________________________ Tom Welsh Committee Member Approved: ___________________________ Frances Prevatt, Chair, Educational Psychology and Learning Systems The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Although mine is the first name that appears on this dissertation, it has been a collaborative effort. This process has taught me that I learn most effectively through conversations and interactions with other people. Through the lively, invigorating thrashing out of ideas with brilliant colleagues my own ideas are brought to life and refined. Too many people have helped with this dissertation to list them all; however a few have been so important to its success that a personal acknowledgement seems a small down payment on an enormous debt of gratitude. First, I am enormously grateful to the dancers who generously gave of their time and experience, making this research possible. I extend my heartfelt appreciation to my doctoral committee for all of their counsel, expertise, and time. I am especially grateful for the Ericssons’ mentorship. Their patience and guidance has supported me during my academic career and beyond. I thank Anders Ericsson for providing the starting point for this project and Natalie Sachs-Ericsson for giving me a map for revising my writing, which made the task far less daunting. I thank Tom Welsh for his affectionate, but critical feedback. His attention to detail and enthusiasm for playing devil’s advocate reminded me to take into account differing perspectives. I express thanks to Amy Baylor for encouraging me to pursue a dissertation topic aligned with my love of dance and for her continued involvement in the dissertation process. I am also grateful to John Keller, for serving as my major professor and supporting my interest in expertise research as it applied to dance. I acknowledge my friends and colleagues at the Learning Systems Institute for their encouragement during the dissertation process. In particular I thank Laura Hassler and Tristan Johnson for their support, and Cathy Alfano, Josh Hall, Carolyn Marovich, and Stella McDermott for their friendship and comic relief. I am also grateful for Carl and Darcy Siebert who tirelessly, and with great tact and intelligence, encouraged me to focus on the completion of the dissertation. iii I thank my co-instructor, Betsy Higgins, and all of my dance students for their wonderful energy. I also recognize my past and present dance instructors for their drive and passion and for teaching me never to always strive for perfection. Finally, I thank my friends and family: my parents, Carlos and Alicia, for their guidance, and unconditional love, the Borowski family for their support, the Huthchinsons’ for welcoming me in to their hearts and lives, my brother, Carlos, who has given me the best gifts of all, Josiah and Jessica, and I am most thankful for my loving fiancé, Chad, who spent many sleepless nights while I worked on this project, iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………...…………… vii ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………..…………....viii CHAPTER 1.............................................................................................................................................................1 LITERATURE REVIEW..........................................................................................................................................1 The Study of Expertise...................................................................................................................................1 Measurement Issues......................................................................................................................................11 Invariance of goals and criteria..............................................................................................................11 Objective measures of attained ballet performance...........................................................................12 Measurement of factors influencing development of expert performance...................................15 Cultural Differences......................................................................................................................................16 Gender Differences......................................................................................................................................17 Summary.........................................................................................................................................................18 Hypotheses.....................................................................................................................................................19 Motivational Characteristics of Dancers...................................................................................................20 CHAPTER 2...........................................................................................................................................................22 METHOD..............................................................................................................................................................22 Participants.....................................................................................................................................................22 Materials..........................................................................................................................................................22 Procedure........................................................................................................................................................25 Design..............................................................................................................................................................26 CHAPTER 3...........................................................................................................................................................27 RESULTS...............................................................................................................................................................27 Demographics................................................................................................................................................27 Developmental Paths of Professional Dancers as a Function of Their Culture and Their Gender ..........................................................................................................................................................................27 Development of ballet practice and the amount of accumulated practice....................................28 Expertise and practice hours..................................................................................................................29 Ballet milestones.......................................................................................................................................29 Performance career and training history..............................................................................................32 Daily lives of professional dancers in different countries.................................................................33 Extracurricular activities..........................................................................................................................34 Developmental Individual Differences in Attained Ballet Performance among Dancers within a Given Culture: Comparison of Female University dance majors and Professional Dancers.........35 Development of practice.........................................................................................................................36 Ballet milestones.......................................................................................................................................36 Daily lives...................................................................................................................................................37 Extra-curricular activities........................................................................................................................37 v Motivation, Goal-Orientation, and Social Support.................................................................................38 Perceived talent.........................................................................................................................................38 Perceptions of talent: comparison of university dance majors with professionals......................39 Social support............................................................................................................................................40 Social support and family conflict comparisons between university dance majors and professionals..............................................................................................................................................42 Cultural Differences and Family support.............................................................................................43 Cultural differences in the importance of Goals................................................................................44 Expertise and Goals: Comparison of university dance majors and professionals.......................45 Concentration, importance, and enjoyment of dance activities.......................................................46 Cultural differences and dance activities..............................................................................................46 Expertise differences and dance activities...........................................................................................48 CHAPTER 4...........................................................................................................................................................50 DISCUSSION.........................................................................................................................................................50 Cross-Cultural Differences among Professional Ballet Dancers..........................................................51 Development of ballet practice and the amount of accumulated practice....................................51 Ballet milestones and talent identification...........................................................................................52 Daily lives and extracurricular activities of professional dancers across cultures.........................53 Gender Differences......................................................................................................................................54 Gender difference in starting ages and amount of training..............................................................54 Gender differences in ballet milestones...............................................................................................56 Gender difference in perceived talent..................................................................................................57 Gender similarities in the daily lives, social support, goals, and motives of professional dancers. ......................................................................................................................................................................57 The Development of Ballet Performance among American Ballet Dancers.....................................58 Expertise, practice, and ballet milestones............................................................................................58 Talent identification among professional dancers and university dance majors..........................60 Social and family support........................................................................................................................61 Extra-curricular activities and daily lives of professional and university dance majors...............63 Goals...........................................................................................................................................................64 Concentration, importance, and enjoyment of dance activities.......................................................64 Conclusion......................................................................................................................................................66 Limitations.................................................................................................................................................68 Future directions.......................................................................................................................................68 APPENDIX A: COVER LETTER & QUESTIONNAIRE.......................................................................78 APPENDIX B: HUMAN SUBJECTS APPROVAL.....................................................................................90 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Number of Professional Participants included in the Analysis………………………...70 Table 2: Questionnaire Response Rate....................................................................................................70 Table 3: System for Evaluating Level of Expertise.................................................................................70 Table 4: Mean ballet milestones by country and gender........................................................................71 Table 5: Mean hours of weekly activities for professional dancers by country.................................72 Table 6: Mean hours of daily activities of female US professional and university dance majors...72 Table 7: Extracurricular involvement of professional dancers by country and gender...................73 Table 8: Perceived talent of professional dancers by country and gender.........................................74 Table 9: Perceived talent of professional and university dance majors within a single county......75 Table 10: Rank-ordering on Concentration, Importance, and Enjoyment of Dance Activity.......76 Table 11: US dancers ratings for activities by expertise.........................................................................77 vii ABSTRACT This study investigates the skill acquisition process of ballet dancers from a cross-cultural, expert-performance perspective. The role of deliberate practice activities in the development and maintenance of ballet expertise was examined using self-report measures. The results of this study are consistent with speculation by dance researchers and expertise research in other domains, indicating that at least 10 years of training are required to reach expert levels. The results of this investigation support the idea that there is an unquestionable relationship between ballet training and the ultimate level of dance expertise. Dancers who reached the highest levels tended to begin their performance careers at entry level positions in international companies and then make their first soloist debuts in the same companies before reaching principle status. The significant relationship between accumulated hours of practice by age 17 and acquired level of expertise by age 18 among the male and female professional dancers across all three countries is important because it provides evidence to support the fundamental assumptions of expertise theory, namely that consistent engagement in deliberate practice is necessary for the development of expertise. Furthermore, the unique cross-cultural differences provide additional support for the relationship between training and expertise. The differences in dance skill found in this study can be accounted for by divergence in training rather than by other variables such as innate talent or genetic predispositions. Specifically, long hours of deliberate practice under the direction of qualified instructors, accumulated over an extended period of time is associated with the expert level of performance in dance. viii CHAPTER 1 Literature Review The Study of Expertise To what degree is what we know about dance consistent with expertise research from other domains? What is the relationship between dance training and the ultimate level of dance expertise? There have always been individuals who excel in a given area. Exceptional scientists, artists, and athletes carve their names in our history books by breaking world records, out-performing their predecessors, and pushing the known limits in a given domain. The study of expertise aims to better understand the skill acquisition process by uncovering the mechanisms by which exceptional skill is acquired and maintained. The study of the development of expertise and the associated knowledge structures is becoming a major focus for both general and applied psychology and even includes other developing domains such as cognitive engineering (Salas & Klein, 2001). Despite the increased interest in the study of expertise development, only a few domain-specific studies have been conducted in the area of dance. Although early research has shown that classical ballet exceeds even professional football in terms of the mental and physical demands (Nicholas, 1975), only limited research has been conducted on the skill acquisition process of ballet, and on the developmental trajectory of classical dancers. Consistent with the findings from expertise research in other domains, that have shown that at least 10 years of training are necessary to reach expert levels (Ericsson & Lehmann, 1996), Schnitt & Schnitt (1987) theorized that in order to produce an elite dancer, 10-15 years of training starting at an early age are required to refine the requisite movement skills of ballet. According to others, in order to achieve the physical requirements necessary to execute classical ballet techniques properly, dancers pursue an arduous course of training that is considerably longer than that of other accomplished athletes (Dunning, J., 1985 as cited in Hamilton, Hamilton, Meltzer, Marshall, & Molnar, 1989). 1