Hinduism is perhaps the oldest of all the living religions. It has neither any definite date of its origin nor has it any definite founder associated with it. It is called Sanatana Dharma, a religion coming down to people through eternity. It is thus a unique religion in one very important sense. Nearly every religion of the world is associated with a definite personality claimed to be its first originator or founder and has a definite text which is regarded as its basic religious text. But Hinduism has none. It can more be regarded as a spontaneous growth assisted at various stages of civilization from various sides rather than a creation or construction of somebody. As Sir Charles Eliot remarks in this connection, “Hinduism has not been made, but has grown. It is jungle, not a building.” Similarly, K. M. Sen makes the following observation in his book Hinduism, “Hinduism is more like a tree that has grown gradually than like a building that has been erected by some great architect as some definite point in time. It contains within itself the influences of many cultures and the body of Hindu thought thus offers as much variety as the Indian nation itself.”1 The names of a host of sages and saints are of course associated with Hinduism, but none can claim to be its founder; they have all simply contributed to its growth in their own specific ways. Hinduism is among the oldest and most multifaceted of spiritual traditions. It can best be defined as a way of life based on the teachings of ancient wisdom texts, such as the Vedas and the Upanishads. Beyond this, however, the religion is difficult to define, chiefly because the word “Hinduism” does not refer to one particular religion but, rather, is a catchphrase for a group of religions, all with origins in India. These religions share certain underlying teachings, and for this reason they are all placed under the Hindu umbrella. The essential core of these religious traditions is properly referred to as Sanatana Dharma, which roughly translates as “eternal religion,” and the words “Hindu” and “Hinduism” are foreign, not indigenous to India itself.2 ||Concept of Human Rights in Hinduism|| Page 194 The Hindu tradition is best understood when compared to a fruit tree, with its roots represented by the Vedas, the Upanishads and other ancient scriptures. The large trunk of the tree is comparable to the spiritual experiences of numerous sages and saints, whose insights are honored as much as those of the sacred texts and, indeed, grow out of these texts. The branches are analogous to the religious traditions that sprout from these roots and its trunk. These are the specific religions that, together, are called Hinduism. Of all such religions the most prominent are Vaishnavism, which refers to the worship of Vishnu (the Supreme God), Shaivism, the veneration of Shiva (God when He manifests for the purpose of universal destruction), and Shaktism, reverence for the Goddess (the Mother of the universe).3 There are many smaller branches as well, symbolizing various sects and subsects found in India. The fruits of this tree are the realizations one gets by practicing the various forms of Hindu religion; the topmost fruit is liberation which begins with release from material conditioning and culminates in love of God. Interestingly, Hinduism accommodates a good number of theological perspectives-with its various religions espousing monotheism, polytheism, pantheism, and so on, in diverse ways- and absorbs the perspectives of other religions as well. It is thus characterized by a rich variety of ideas and practices that cannot be confined by one particular doctrine. In fact, it is more defined by what a person does than by what he or she thinks. Hinduism is cultural, not doctrinal, taking its inspiration from the many traditions of its ancestors as opposed to any one teaching. It is so diverse in its underlying premises and practical manifestations that it has been called a living encyclopedia of religions. Only the foundational texts of India, the Vedas, along with their attendant Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishadic literature are considered direct revelation from God. The original four books-the Rig Veda, the Sama Veda, the Yajur Veda and the Atharva Veda- are basically a series of prayers to the ||Concept of Human Rights in Hinduism|| Page 195 divine, incorporating complex rituals and elaborate fire sacrifices that are the stuff of legend. Here in this earliest stratum of Indic literature, divinity appears in the form of terrestrial, celestial and atmospheric deities, individual representations of the Supreme Spirit for specific sacrificial purposes. Many of these sacrifices are replicated today, although in a much abbreviated form and only during special ceremonies. The archaic texts known as the Vedas have largely been replaced by a corpus of secondary literature and these make up the texts of modern Hinduism. THE UPANISHADS The Upanishads are 108 separate texts appended to the Vedas and described as their philosophical elaboration. These works are considered part of the Vedas proper. Despite the many Upanishadic texts known to tradition only about 13 are currently popular or commonly referred to. In these works one finds a bridge, of sorts, from the vast impersonalism of the Vedas to the religions we now identify as Hinduism. Indeed, even though specific deities are mentioned in the earliest of Vedic texts, the overall tenor of its spiritual message lacks the personalistic theism of later Hindu tradition. The word Upanishad means “to come and sit down near me.” Indicating that the texts are properly understood by sitting at the feet of a teacher (guru) and learning submissively. All Upanishadas focus on the truth underlying Vedic knowledge-the vast reality at the heart of all ritual and sacrifice, the core of spiritual wisdom. Important aphorisms associated with the Upanishads are Tat tvam asi “You are That” (i.e., Brahman) and “I am Brahman.(aham brahmasmi)” Naturally, those with a monistic leaning have interpreted these aphorisms as indicating oneness with God. The theistic traditions, however, have explained them in different ways. The Sanskrit texts allow for that. For example, “You are That” “can simply mean “you are spirit,” which does not necessarily indicate identity with God. Similarly, “I am Brahman” can be understood in a similar way. Indeed Vaishnavas, or devotees of Vishnu, go ||Concept of Human Rights in Hinduism|| Page 196 through great pains to distinguish between Brahman and “Para”-Brahman, or spirit and the “Supreme” spirit4. THE MAHABHARATA The Mahabharata comprises some 110,000 Sanskrit couplets-seven times the length of the Ilied and the Odyssey combined of nearly three times the size of the Judeo-Christian Bible. As an epic of immense proportions, both in terms of length and content, it has become the basis of Indian myth, religion, and philosophical thought. It is within the pages of the Mahabharata (1.57.74), in fact, that we first read of a work that sees itself on the level of the Vedas; it proclaims itself “the Fifth Veda.” Hence, he wrote the Mahabharata, a mammoth work that, as it is said, includes just about everything. As the text it opines: “If it is not found within these pages, it does not exist.”5 The substance of the basic story, however, revolves around the furious quarrel between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, two groups of cousin who were nurtured from their earliest years in the chivalrous Kshatriya caste6- meaning that they were trained as warriors, administrators, and protectors of the innocent. The quarrel between these two groups escalated into a full-scale vivil war, involving gods, yogis (higher beings with magical powers), sages and royalty. The war was known as the battle between dharma and adharma, good and bad, just and unjust. THE BHAGAVAD GITA Although widely published as a book unto itself, the Bhagavad Gita originally appeared as an episode in the Sixth Section of the Mahabharata. It consists of 700 verses in 18 chapters and is often referred to as the Gitopanishad. In other words, it follows the literary style and philosophical conclusions of the earlier Upanishads, the esoteric books of knowledge appended to the Vedas. ||Concept of Human Rights in Hinduism|| Page 197 Gita means “song,” and bhagavad refers to “God, the possessor (vat) of all opulence (bhaga).” The Bhagavad Gita, therefore, is “The Song of the All Opulent One, “embodying the essential teachings of Lord Krishna. The dialogue moves through a series of questions and answers that brings Arjuna along with subsequent readers, to an understanding of certain fundamental metaphysical concepts. These include the distinction between the body and the soul or between matter and spirit: the logic of reincarnation: the principle of non-attached action, of how to work dispassionately and for a higher purpose; the virtues and mechanics of various forms of discipline and meditation (yoga): and the place of knowledge (gyana) and devotion (bhakti) in pursuit of the spirit. Krishna explains the modes of nature-goodness, passion, and ignorance-and how these qualities impact on people’s lives. He also explains the nature of God and the purpose of existence7. Ultimately, Krishna teaches Arjuna that perfection lies not in renunciation of the world, but rather in disciplined action, performed without attachment to results. He urges Arjuna to fight, but with a sense of love and spiritual purpose. THE RAMAYANA The other great Sanskrit epic, the Ramayan- “the story of Rama” also an incarnation of Vishnu, the Over soul of the Universe- is about 24,000 verses, which makes it roughly a quarter the length of the Mahabharata. It is said to originate in a previous age, about 2 million years ago, although scholars, naturally, give it a much later date. The sage Valmiki was the first to present it in written form, but it is a story that existed long before he committed it to writing. There are many retellings that came after Valmiki’s version as well, and, in fact, most Hindus know these other, regional versions, for they appear in vernacular languages, whereas Valmiki’s is in Sanskrit, an archaic tongue known mainly by the intellectual elite. The Ramayana is often relished for its sheer beauty: As examples, one needs look no further than its Sanskrit poetry, its provocative setting, and its ||Concept of Human Rights in Hinduism|| Page 198 profound dialogue. The beauty is also evident in the sense of morals and ethics found in its pages, in the ideals it encourages in its readers, and in the wide canopy of emotions it brings to the fore. Most of all the inspirational personalities depicted in its pages are the highest peaks in the Ramayana’s overwhelming beauty. MANUSMRITI Most Hindus have never actually studied the “Laws Code of Manu” (alternatively called Manu-smriti, Manu-samhita, and so on), but it informs most of their day-to- day activities. They tend to learn it haphazardly, through weekly sermons at the temple, parental admonitions, or stray proverbs heard at school. Nonetheless, this work is the most celebrated and honored text outside India’s usual corpus of sacred literature. It is considered a “legal” text, with more commentaries than any other book of its kind, and there are many. As the book opens, a group of sages approaches Manu and ask about duty and law, hoping he will instruct them. He does. He tells them about the creation of the world and its original purpose. Naturally, in due course, he describes the four social classes-intellectuals, warriors, merchants, and workers- and then tells his student, Bhrigu, to explain the rest. As Bhrigu does so, the book goes through the specific duties of each class, along with their expected rituals, marriage customs, food preferences, judicial procedures, forms of taxation, and punishments for various crimes. Unlike earlier texts of this kind, it places undo emphasis on the warrior caste, with an outline of kingly duties, statecraft and law, perhaps hoping to rectify the growing rift between the intellectuals and administrators of the period. ADDITIONAL HINDU TEXTS Many other texts are used in the study of Hinduism. Of particular importance are a group of works known as Pancharatra, Agama, and Tantra. These three constitute a category of literature used by Vaishnavas (devotees of ||Concept of Human Rights in Hinduism|| Page 199 God in the form of Vishnu), Shaivites (devotees of Shiva, or God for the purpose of universal destruction) and Shaktas (those who revere the Goddess), respectively, although sometimes the words are used interchangeably. They are ritual texts in that they explicate exact procedure for worshiping the divine, although they are not generally philosophical or theological in nature. Rather, they are “how to” manuals for day-to-day activity in relation to God. In some cases, they include esoteric ideas about the spiritual dimension of reality and underlying information about God or the mysteries of the universe. BRANCHES Hinduism is a conglomerate of numerous religious traditions, so there is no central trunk from which branches grow. That being said, the Vedic tradition, complete with its earliest literature, known as the four Vedas, and the secondary literature, such as the epics and the puranas, might be considered the root; thus all traditions growing out of this foundation could be seen as branches of Hinduism. Thus, India’s many “Hindu” religions are, is a sense, branches. This begins with the large, overarching traditions- Vaishnavism, the worship of god in the form of Vishnu or any of His many incarnations and expansions; Shaivism, the worship of Shiva, Lord of destruction; and Shaktism, the veneration of the Goddess, known as Kali, Durga, Uma and so on. Other branches are found in the many minor religious traditions in India. VAISHNAVISM Widely considered the most significant Hindu tradition today-certainly in terms of numbers and arguably in terms of complexity-Vaishnavism is a monotheistic tradition that centres on the worship of Vishnu, the “Over soul” of the universe. Vishnu exists in numerous forms, such as Krishna and Rama and for this reason, the religion is often viewed as polytheistic; the various forms of Vishnu are mistakenly seen as many different gods. Nonetheless, a close study reveals that his plentiful manifestations are like so many facts on a ||Concept of Human Rights in Hinduism|| Page 200 precious gem; it is one gem, no matter how many facets it might have. In general, the Hindu conception of divinity is multifaceted, and Vaishnavism is no exception: The Divine is a diamond of innumerable facets; two very large and bright facets are Vishnu and Shiva, while the others represent all the gods that were ever worshipped. Some facets seem larger, brighter and better polished than others, but in fact the devotee… worships the whole diamond, which is in reality perfect.”8 This is not to say that all the gods are equal, or that they partake of the same level of divinity. Indeed, the Vedic literature goes to great pains to reveal a hierarchy of divine beings, and although from one level of perception, these gods are one, they are also many. This is a truth found in the earliest of Vedic aphorisms. In the material world, Vishnu manifests in an infinity of forms, but his 10 most famous incarnations are: 1. The Divine Fish, Matsya, who saved the world from a deluge recorded in ancient Vedic texts. 2. The Divine Tortoise, Kurma, who offered his back as the pivot on which Mt. Mandara rested. Here, gods and demons both churned various valuable objects from the ocean of mild, a famous story from the Vedic literature. 3. The Boar, Varaha , like Matsya, rescued the earth from a flood, raising it from watery depths o his tusk, for otherwise it would have been completely submerged. 4. The Man-Lion, Narasimha, came to earth to deliver the world from a demon, who had obtained from the gods a boon stating that he would be slain neither by a god, human, nor animal. Narasimha was not any of these for he was a combination of all of them. 5. The Dwarf, Vamana, was Vishnu in the form of a dwarf. Here he was confronted with a demon king who had conquered the universe. On behalf of human kind, he begged from the demon for as much land as he could cover in three steps. His request was granted, but much to the demon king’s surprise, ||Concept of Human Rights in Hinduism|| Page 201 Vamana traversed the universe in these three steps, winning the world back for those who are righteous. 6. Rama with the axe, Parashurama, was Vishnu in the form of a hero. Here he destroyed the warrior class of men, who were exploiting others with their power. 7. Ramachandra, the great hero of the Hindu odyssey, the Ramayana, taught, by his own example, the true meanings of fidelity, love and duty. 8. Krishna, the playful lord of Vraja, is often viewed as the most perfect incarnation of Vishnu, and even as the source of all incarnations. He displays his charming lila, or divine actions, to allure humanity back to the transcendental realm. 9. Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, is seen as an incarnation of Vishnu as well, although his primary accomplishment according to Vaishnava texts is that he bewilders those inclined to atheism. By doing so, say the Vaishnava sages, He gradually gets them to abandon harmful habits (such as meat eating) and to once again adopt Vedic teaching in earnest.9 10. Kalki is the form of Vishnu who comes at the end of the present age, in about 427,000 years. At that time, all devotees will already be reunited with Vishnu in his heavenly kingdom. The remaining souls, whose lives, according to Hindu texts, are unfortunate, shortened and riddled with disease, will be mercifully slain by Vishnu so that they might be reborn in the next Satya Age, a pious time when the world is once again created a new.10 SHAIVISM Shaivism, or the worship of Lord Shiva (“the Auspicious One”), is another prominent branch of Hinduism. Although Shiva is seen in the Vaishnava tradition as both an alternate manifestation of Vishnu in charge of universal destruction and as Vishnu’s greatest devotee, Shaivites see him as God, without any qualifying afterthought.11 The worshipers of Shiva tend to ||Concept of Human Rights in Hinduism|| Page 202