Sheet Metal Forming FUNDAMENTALS EEddiitteedd by by TTaayyllaann AAllttaann aanndd AA.. EErrmmaann TTeekkkkaayyaa TThhee MMaatteerriiaallss IInnffoorrmmaattiioonn SSoocciieettyy AASSMM IInntteerrnnaattiioonnaall®@ MMaatteerriiaallss PPaarrkk,, OOhhiioo 4444007733--00000022 wwwwww..aassrmn iinntt eerrnnaattiioonnaal I. .oorrgg Copyright 0 2012 by ASM International@ All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the copyright owner. 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Comments, criticisms, and suggestions are invited, and should be forwarded to ASM International Prepared under the direction of the ASM International Technical Book Committee (2011-2012), Bradley J. Diak, Chair: ASM International staffwho worked on this project include Scott Hen y,S enior Manages Content Development and Publishing; Karen Marken, Senior Managing Editor; Steven L. Lampman, Content Developer; Sue Sellers, Editorial Assistant; Bonnie Sanders, Manager of Production; Madrid Tramble, Senior Production Coordinator; and Diane Whitelaw. Production Coordinator: Library of Congress Control Number: 201 1945709 ISBN-13 : 978-1-615 03-842-8 ISBN-10 : 0-6 1503-842-6 SAN: 204-7586 ASM International@ Materials Park, OH 44073-0002 www asminternational.org Printed in the United States of America Preface In sheet metal forming, a sheet blank that has a simple shape is plastically formed between tools (or dies) to obtain a part with relatively complex geometry with desired tolerances and properties. Sheet metal forming processes usually produce little scrap and generate the final part geometry in a very short time, usually in one stroke or a few strokes of a press. As a result, sheet forming offers potential savings in energy and material, especially in medium and large production quantities, where tool costs can be easily amortized. The ever-increasing costs of material, energy and manpower require that sheet metal forming processes and tooling be designed and developed with minimum amount of trial and error with shortest possible lead times. Therefore, to remain competitive, the cost-effective application of computer-aided technologies, i.e. CAD, CAM, CAE, and especially finite element analysis (FEA), computer-based simulation is an absolute necessity. Thus, process modeling using FEA has been discussed in all appropriate chapters. The practical and efficient use of these technologies requires a thorough knowledge of the principle variables of the sheet metal forming processes and their interactions. These variables include: 1. the flow behavior and formability of the formed sheet material under processing conditions; 2. die geometry, materials and coatings; 3. friction and lubrication; 4. the mechanics of deformation, i.e. strains, stresses and forces; 5. characteristics of the sheet metal forming presses and tooling; 6. geometly, tolerances, surface finish and mechanical properties of the formed parts, and 7. the effects of the process on the environment. These topics are addressed in two companion volumes Sheet Metal Forming-Funda- mentals and Sheet Metal Forming-Processes and Applications. Principles are de- scribed, and major emphasis is placed on the latest developments on the design of sheet forming operations, equipment and tooling. In Sheet Metal Forming-Fundamentals, the role of sheet metal forming in manu- facturing has been introduced in Chapter 1. Chapter 2 gives the classification and de- scription of sheet metal forming operations. The fundamentals of plastic deformation, i.e. metal flow, flow stress of materials, testing methods to determine flow stress and formability are discussed in Chapters 3,4, and 5. Chapters 6 and 7 cover the significant process variables materials and friction. The introduction to deep drawing is discussed in Chapter 8. Chapters 9, 10, 11, and 12 discuss the characteristics and operations of various sheet metal forming presses (hydraulic, mechanical, servo-drive) and cushion systems. vii viii / Preface In Sheet Metal Forming-Processes andApplications, Chapters 1 and 2 cover blank- ing, and bending. Process modeling and its applications are discussed in Chapter 3 as well as in several other chapters, where appropriate. Chapter 4 reviews progressive and transfer &e forming. Relatively new technologies, i.e. warm forming, forming of ad- vanced high strength steels (AHSS) and hot stamping are discussed in Chapters 5, 6, and 7, respectively. Processes that are related to sheet forming such as sheet and tube hydroforming, roll forming, and high velocity forming are covered in Chapters 8 9, 10, and 11. Special sheet forming operations spinning, incremental forming and mechani- cal joining are discussed in Chapters 12, 13, and 14. Sensors and die materials are criti- cal for practical application of sheet forming technology and they are discussed in Chapters 15 and 16. The preparation of this book was possible through extensive efforts by many friends, associates and students of the editors who authored and co-authored many of the chap- ters. We would like to thank them all for their very valuable contributions. We would like to thank Ms. Linda Anastasi, Administrative Assistant of the Center for Precision Forming (CPF www.cpforming.org),w ho revised the chapters several - times, Mr. Xi Yang and Manan Shah at CPF who assisted in the editing of some chap- ters and Mr. Doug Dragoo of Cincinnati Inc. who reviewed Chapter 15 on Bending and made valuable suggestions. We would also like to thank our families, who offered us enormous support and encouragement throughout the preparation of this book. Finally, we would like to gratefully acknowledge the financial support from member companies of CPF and especially from the National Science Foundation (NSF) that helped us summarize the results of sheet metal forming research, conducted over the years at The Ohio State University. Taylan Altan A. Erman Tekkaya Center for Precision Forming (CPF) Institut fur Umformtechnik und Leichtbau The Ohio State University (IUL) Technische Universitat Dortmund, Germany Contents .. ................................................................................................................................ Preface VII .................................................................................................. Abbreviations and Symbols ix ..................................................... Chapter 1 Metal Forming Processes in Manufacturing 1 1 .I Classification of Manufacturing Processes .............................................. 1 1 .2 Characteristics of Manufacturing Processes ............................................ 1 1 .3 Metal Forming Processes in Manufacturing. ........................................... 2 1 .4 Classification of Metal Forming Processes .............................................. 3 ................ Chapter 2 Classification and Description of Sheet Metal Forming Operations 5 2.1 Process Variables ............................ ........................ 5 2.2 Sheet Metal For 2.3 Classification 2.4 Bending and Flanging ............................... 2.5 Blank Preparation ........................... ...................... 14 2.6 Deep Drawing.. ............................... 2.7 Stretch Forming. .............................. ...................... 18 2.8 Incremental Forming ............................... 2.9 Hybrid Formin ...................... 23 ................................................. Chapter 3 Plastic Deformation-Strain and Strain Rate 27 3.1 Homogeneous or Uniform Deformation .............................................. 27 3.2 Volume Constancy during Plastic Deformation .................................... 29 3.3 Infinitesimal True Strains and Strain Rates ............................................ 29 3.4 Principal Strains and Strain Paths ......................................................... 31 3.5 Equivalent Strain Rate and Equivalent Strain ........................................ 32 .................... Chapter 4 Plastic Deformation-Flow Stress, Anisotropy, and Formability 33 4.1 Tensile Test ........ ............................... 33 4.2 Flow Stress ...................... 37 4.3 Methods to 39 4.4 Formability ...................... 44 4.5 Forming Limit Curves (FLCs) ............................... 48 ... Ill iv / Contents Chapter 5 Plastic Deformation-State of Stress. Yield Criteria Flow Rule. and ............................................................................................ Hardening Rules 53 5.1 General State of Stress ......................................................................... 53 5.2 Principal Stresses ................................................................................. 54 5.3 Volumetric Stress or Hydrostatic Pressure ............................................ 54 5.4 Deviatoric Stress .................................................................................. 55 5.5 Isotropic Yield Criteria (Flow Criteria) .................................................. 56 5.6 Tresca Yield Criterion ........................................................................... 56 5.7 Von Mises Yield Criterion ..................................................................... 57 5.8 Comparison of Tresca and von Mises Criteria ...................................... 58 5.9 Anisotropic Yield Criteria ..................................................................... 58 5.10 Flow Rules ........................................................................................... 63 5.1 1 Power and Energy of Deformation ....................................................... 64 5.1 2 Effective Strain and Effective Strain Rate .............................................. 65 5.1 3 Hardening Laws .................................................................................. 66 .......................................................................... Chapter 6 Materials for Sheet Forming 73 6.1 Low-Carbon Sheet Steels 6.2 Coated Sheet Steels. .................................. 6.3 Stainless Steels ......... ................................. 6.4 Aluminum Alloys 6.5 Magnesium Alloys ... ................................. ................................................................................ Chapter 7 Friction and Lubrication 89 7.1 Lubrication Mechanisms and Friction Laws ......................................... 89 7.2 Lubricants for Sheet Metal Forming. ..................................................... 91 7.3 Tribological Tests for Evaluation of Lubricants in Sheet Metal Forming .................................................................................. 94 7.4 Tribological Tests for Warm and Hot Stamping ..................................... 98 7.5 Tribological Tests for Punching and Blanking ..................................... 100 .......................................... Chapter 8 Deep Drawing of Round and Rectangular Cups 105 8.1 Deformation during Deep Drawing ................................................... 105 8.2 Deep Drawing of Rectangular Cups ................................................... 121 8.3 Prediction of Punch Force and BHF-Case Study .............................. 123 ............................................................. Chapter 9 Principles of Sheet Forming Presses 129 9.1 Components of Presses ...................................................................... 129 9.2 Characteristics of Presses ................................................................... 131 9.3 Quick Die Change Systems. ............................................................... 139 ...................................................................................... Chapter 10 Mechanical Presses 145 10.1 Mechanical Press Designs ................................................................ 145 10.2 Characteristics of Mechanical Presses .............................................. 150 10.3 Other Features of Mechanical Presses .............................................. 155 ........................................................ Chapter 11 Electromechanical Servo-Drive Presses 161 11 .1 Servo-Press Drives Versus Conventional Press Drives ....................... 161 11 .2 Servo-Press Drives ........................................................................... 163 Contents / v 11. 3 Applications ..................................................................................... 167 1 1 .4 Cushions/Die Cushions .................................................................... 173 11.5 Comparison of Mechanical and Servo Presses ................................. 174 11.6 New Process Development Using Servo-Press Characteristics ......... 176 1 1 .7 Summary ......................................................................................... 178 ......................................................................................... Chapter 12 Hydraulic Presses 181 12.1 Components of Hydraulic Presses ................. 12.2 Drive Systems ................ 12.3 Characteristics of Hydraulic Presses .............. 12.4 Hydraulic Press Designs ................................................... Chapter 13 Cushion Systems for Sheet Metal Forming 203 13.1 Blank holder Systems in Double-Action Presses .............................. 203 13.2 Single-Action Presses with Cushion System ..................................... 206 13.3 Multipoint Cushion (MPC) Systems .................................................. 211 ....................................................................................... Appendix A Flow Stress Curves 221 ....................................................................................................... Appendix B Glossary 233 ................................................................................................................................. Index 267 CHAPTER 1 Metal Forming Processes in Manufacturing Taylan Altan, The Ohio State University A. Erman Tekkaya, Technische Universitat Dortmund, Germany IN A MANUFACTURING process, a given ometry. Some important processes in this material is transformed into a useful part having category are turning, milling, drilling, saw- a complex geometry with well-defined (a) ing, and electrodischarge machining. shape, (b) size, (c) accuracy and tolerances, (d) 4. Material treatment processes aim to change appearance, and (e) properties (Ref 1.1). The the properties and appearance of the part material usually begins in a shapeless form without changing its shape. Heat treating, (such as liquid metal in casting) or of a simple anodizing, and surface treatment are com- geometry (such as a blank sheet metal forming). monly used material treatment processes. The various manufacturing processes have ad- 5. Joining processes, in which two or more vantages and limitations in achieving the de- parts are joined to form a new component sired shape, size, tolerances, appearance, and or subassembly. Metallurgical joining pro- properties of a part. cesses, such as welding, brazing, and sol- dering, form a permanent and robust joint between components. Mechanical joining 1.1 Classification of Manufacturing processes, such as riveting and mechanical Processes assembly, bring two or more parts together to build a subassembly that can be disas- Manufacturing processes can be divided, in a sembled conveniently. simplified manner, into five general areas (Ref 1.2): 1.2 Characteristics of Manufacturing Primary shaping processes, such as cast- Processes ing, melt extrusion, die casting, and press- ing of metal powder. In all these processes, There are four main characteristics of any the material initially has no shape but ob- manufacturing process: achievable geometry, tains a well-defined geometry through the tolerances, production rate, and environmental process. Here the first shape is given to the factors. material. Forming processes, such as rolling, extru- 1. Geometry. Each manufacturing process is sion, cold and hot forging, bending, and well suited for producing a particular type deep drawing, where metal is formed by of geometry. Other geometries may be pro- plastic deformation, without destroying the duced in some cases, but usually not with- cohesion of the material. out considerable expense. For example, Material removal processes, in which ex- manufacturing processes using dies and cess material is removed from the starting molds can produce parts that are easily re- workpiece in order to obtain the desired ge- moved from a mold made from two halves. 2 / Sheet Metal Forming-Fundamentals However, by using a “split-die” design, it is processes, all of which require new invest- possible to manufacture forgings, castings, ments. However, the most important in- or injection moldings with undercuts and gredient for improving productivity lies in more complex shapes. human and managerial resources, because 2. Tolerances. When fabricating a given com- good decisions regarding investments ponent, it is nearly impossible and very (when, how much, and in what) are made costly to make the part to the exact dimen- by people who are well trained and well sions specified by the designer. Therefore, motivated. As a result, the present and fu- dimensions should be associated with a tol- ture manufacturing productivity in a plant, erance. By using more sophisticated varia- an industry, or a nation depends not only on tions of the process and by means of new the level of investment in new plants and developments, the quality of the tolerance, machinery but also on the level of training that is, precision, can always be improved. and availability of manufacturing engineers For example, it is possible to control sheet and specialists in that plant, industry, or metal flow and obtain better parts with nation. more uniform thickness distribution and 4. Environmental factors. Every manufac- tighter tolerances with multipoint binder turing process must be examined in view of pressure control systems than with the con- (a) its effects on the environment, that is, in ventional uniform pressure distribution terms of air, water, and noise pollution; (b) obtained with die cushion. Dimensional its interfacing with human resources, that tolerances serve a dual purpose. First, they is, in terms of human safety, physiological allow proper functioning of the manufac- effects, and psychological effects, and (c) tured part; for example, an automotive its use of energy and material resources, brake drum must be round, within specified particularly in view of the changing world acceptable limits, to avoid vibrations and to conditions concerning scarcity of energy ensure proper functioning of the brakes. and materials. Consequently, the introduc- Second, dimensional tolerances provide in- tion and use of a manufacturing process terchangeability. Modern mass production must also be preceded by a consideration of would be unthinkable without interchange- these environmental factors. ability-the ability to replace a defective part or component (a bearing, for example) with a new one, manufactured by a differ- 1.3 Metal Forming Processes in ent supplier. Manufacturing 3. Production rate. The rate of production, that is, number of parts produced per unit Metal forming includes (a) bulk forming pro- time, that can be attained with a given man- cesses such as forging, extrusion, rolling, and ufacturing operation is probably the most drawing and (b) sheet forming processes such significant feature of that operation, be- as brake forming, deep drawing, and stretch cause it indicates the economics of and the forming. Among the group of manufacturing achievable productivity with that manufac- processes discussed earlier, metalforming repre- turing operation. In industrialized coun- sents a highly significant group of processes for tries, manufacturing industries represent 15 producing industrial and military components to 25% of gross national product. Conse- and consumer goods (Ref 1.3). quently, manufacturing productivity, that A common way of classifying metal forming is, production of discrete parts, assemblies, processes is to consider cold (before the crystal- and products per unit time, is one of the lization temperature) and hot (above the recrys- most important factors influencing the stan- tallization temperature) forming. Most materials dard of living in a country, as well as that behave differently under different temperature country’s competitive position in interna- conditions. Usually, the yield stress of a metal tional trade in manufactured goods. increases with increasing strain (or deforma- The rate of production or manufactur- tion) during cold forming and with increasing ing productivity can be increased by im- strain rate (or deformation rate) during hot proving existing manufacturing processes forming. However, the general principles gov- and by introducing new machines and new erning the forming of metals at various temper- Chapter 1 : Metal Forming Processes in Manufacturing / 3 atures are basically the same. Therefore, classi- able increase in the area-to-volume ratio occur- fication of forming processes based on initial ring in the formed part. The term bulk indicates material temperature does not contribute a great the low area-to-volume ratio in the starting ma- deal to the understanding and improvement of terial. The starting material is in billet, rod, or these processes. In fact, tool design, machinery, slab form. automation, part handling, and lubrication con- Bulk forming processes have the following cepts can be best considered by means of a clas- characteristics: sification based not on temperature but rather on specific input and output geometries and mate- The workpiece undergoes large plastic de- rial and production rate conditions. formation, resulting in an appreciable change Complex geometries, in both massive and in shape or cross section. sheet forming processes, can be obtained The portion of the workpiece undergoing equally well by hot or cold forming. Of course, permanent (plastic) deformation is gener- because of the lower yield strength of the de- ally much larger than the portion undergo- forming material at elevated temperatures, tool ing elastic deformation, so elastic recovery stresses and machine loads are, in a relative after deformation is usually negligible. sense, lower in hot forming than in cold form- ing. However, part accuracy is usually higher in In sheet forming, sheet blanks are plastically cold-formed parts. deformed into a complex three-dimensional ge- Forming is especially attractive in cases ometry, usually without any significant change where (a) the part geometry is of moderate com- in sheet thickness and surface characteristics. plexity and the production volumes are large, so The surface area-to-volume of the starting metal that tooling costs per unit product can be kept is high; therefore, this ratio is a useful means to low-for example, in automotive or appliance distinguish bulk deformation from sheet metal applications; and (b) the part properties and processes. metallurgical integrity are extremely important, Sheet metal operations are nearly always per- in examples such as load-carrying aircraft and formed as cold working processes and are ac- jet engine and turbine components. complished using a tool set consisting of a The design, analysis and optimization of punch and a die, which are the positive (male) forming processes require (a) analytical knowl- and negative (female) portion of the tool set, edge regardmg metal flow, stresses and heat respectively. transfer as well as (b) technological information The characteristics of sheet metal forming related to lubrication, heating and cooling tech- processes are: niques, material handling, die design and manu- facture, and forming equipment. The workpiece is a sheet or a part fabricated from a sheet. The deformation usually has the objective to cause significant changes in shape, but not 1.4 Classification of Metal Forming in cross section, of the sheet. Reduction in Processes sheet thickness is usually not desirable, but it is an unavoidable consequence of the pro- Metal forming processes can be classified cess. as: In some cases, the magnitudes of permanent 1. Bulk deformation processes, such as forg- (plastic) and recoverable (elastic) deforma- tions are comparable; thus, elastic recovery ing, extrusion, rolling, and drawing 2. Sheet-metal forming processes, such as or springback may be significant. brake forming, deep drawing, and stretch forming Examples of sheet-metal forming processes are 3. Hybrid forming processes such as drawing dwussed in Chapter 2, “Classification and De- and ironing and bending and coining scription of Sheet Metal Forming Operations,” of this book. Bulk deformation (massive forming) processes Some processes, known as hybrid forming are generally characterized by significant defor- processes, can fall under both sheet metal and mation and massive shape change and consider- bulk forming categories according to the work-