-êq 3-rF SEMI-COMM ERCIAL COM PLEX AGROFORES A CASE STUDY FROM WEST KALIMANTAN, INDONESIA -PÈ:. Durio zib e thiruts (Murr.) The Gentæ Durio by Ã.1.H. Koe stetmøns By: Hilary Frances Smith B.A. Hons A thesis written to fulfil the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Geography, at the University of Adelaide, South Australia, Australia. o TABLE OF G NTENTS TITLE PAGE i TABLE OF CONTENTS ¡i LIST OF TABLES V LIST OF FIGURES vi LIST OF PLATES vii ABSTRACT viii DECLARATION ix ACKNOWLEDGMENTS X 1 CHAPTER 2.TH EGOLOGY OF PEOPLE AND TH ENVIRONMENT 2.1 INTRODUCTION 4 2.2THE PHILOSOPHY OF HUMAN INTERACTION WTH THE ENVIRONMENT 5 2.3 THE CONCEPT OF PROPERTY 12 2.4THE ECOLOGY OF PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT 25 2.4.1Human Ecology 32 2,4.2 P olitical Ecology 34 2.4.3 Agroecology 36 2. 5 AGROECOSYSTEMS ANALYSIS 38 2.5.1 The Ecology of agroecosystems 42 2.6 CONCLUSION 43 CHAPTER 3 . BIODIVERSIW. TR/ADITIONAL PEOPLE AND THE ECOLOGY OF AGROFORESTRY. 3.1 INTRODUCTION 45 3.2 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION 45 3.2.1 The Value of BiodiversitY 46 3.2.2 Ecosystems DiversitY 47 3.2.3 Biodiversity in lndonesia 48 3.3 TRADITIONAL PEOPLE 49 3.3.1 The Question of "Traditionalness" 50 3.4 NTEGRATI NG CONSERVATION WITH DEVELOPMENT 54 I 3.4.1 Protected Areas and Local People 57 3.5 AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS 58 3.5. 1 Classifying Agroforestry Systems 59 3.5.2 Complex Agroforestry Systems 61 3.6 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION STRATEGI ES 67 3.6.1 National Parks and Protected Areas 67 3.6.2 Extractive reserves 71 3.6.3 Buffer-zones 72 3.6.4 Conservation Strategies and Land Rights 75 3.7 AGROFORESTRY AND BUFFER-ZONE DEVELOPMENT 79 3.8 3.8 TREE TENURE 81 3.9 CONCLUSIONS 85 GHAPTER 4 . POLITICS. POLICY AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION 4.1 INTRODUCTION 85 4.2 INDONESIAN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY 86 4.3 ADAT AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 86 4.3.1 Adat and the Communi$ 86 4.3.2 Adat and Resource Management 89 4.4 HTSTORICAL INFLUENCES ON INDONESIAN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY 91 4.4.1 Dutch Agrarian Policy and the Basic Agrarian law 92 ll 4.4.2The Basic Forestry law 94 4.4.3 The National Forestry Land Use Plan 95 4.4.5 The Basic Forestry Law and Customary Rights 99 a 4.5 INDONESIAN CONSERVATION POLICY 104 4.5.1 History of Conservation in lndonesia 105 4.5.2 lnternational lnfluences 107 4.6 CONCLUSION 111 CHAPTER 5 - STUDY AREA 5.1 INTRODUCTION 112 5.2 POLITICAL ADMINISTRATION, HISTORY AND DEMOGRAPHY 112 5.2.1 West Kalimantan 112 5.2.2 History of Sukadana 114 5.2.3 The Demography of the Region 117 5.3 GUNUNG PALUNG NATIONAL PARK 119 5.4 THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE REGION 120 5.4.1 Geology and Soils 120 5.4.2 Forest Cover 122 5.4.3 Species DiversitY 125 5.4.4 Climate 125 5.5 PEOPLE, FOREST AND LAND USE 126 5.6 BATU TERITIP 127 13'l 5.7 CONCLUSION CHAPTER 6 . METHODOLOGY 6.1 INTRODUCTION 132 6.2 PARTICI PANT OBSERVATION 132 6.3 RESEARCH METHODS 137 6.3.1 Sociological Surveys and Anecdotal Evidence 137 6.3.2 Biogeographical and Ecological Techniques 140 6.3.3 Mycological Methods 142 6.3.4 Data Analysis 143 6.4 CONCLUSIONS 145 CHAPTER 7. CTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE ROECOSYSTEM 7.1 INTRODUCTION 146 7.2THE STRUCTURE OF THE AGROECOSYSTEMS 146 7.2.1 Stages in Ecosystem Transformation 146 7 .2.2 V ertical Structure 154 7 .2.3 Horizontal Organisation 160 7.2.4 Growth and DeveloPment 162 7.2.5 Summary 170 7.3 THE FUNCTION OF THE AGROECOSYSTEM 170 7.3.1 Production 171 7.3.2 Utility of Forest Garden Species 171 7.3.3 lnput of Labour 176 7.3.4 Becoming ProsPerous 187 7.3.5 The Role of Durian in Complex Agroforestry 187 7.4 STABILITY OF THE AGROECOSYSTEM 191 7.4.1 Access to Markets 192 7.4.2 Olher Factors 194 7.5 PROTECTION 195 7.5.1 The Role of Species Diversity 196 203 7.6 CONCLUSION CHAPTER 8 . AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS: BELOW GROUND 8.1 INTRODUCTION 204 8.2 THE STATUS OF TROPICAL SOILS 205 lll 8.3 AGROFORESTRY AND SOIL CONSERVATION 206 8.3.1 Soil Degradation 206 8.3.2 Tropical Soils and Farming Systems 207 8.4 MYCORRHIZAS: AN INTRODUCTION 210 8.4. 1 Vesicular-arbuscular Mycorrhizas 211 8.4.2 Ectomycorrhizas 211 8.5 MYCORRHIZAS IN THE TROPICS 213 8.6 MYCORRHIZAS AND PLANT COMMUNITIES 213 8.6.1 Mycorrhizas in Succession 214 8.7 MYCORRHIZAS AND PLANT DISEASE 220 8.8 THE MYCORRHIZAL STATUS OF DURIAN: A CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEBATE 221 8.9 CONCLUSIONS 223 CHAPTER 9. PROPERTY RIGHTS 9.1 INTRODUCTION 224 9.2 PROPERTY RIGHTS IN BATU TERITIP 225 9.2.1 Rights to Land 225 9.3 RIGHTS IN TREES 229 9.3.1 Rights to Durian Trees 229 9.3.2 Rights Through Planting 231 9.3.3 The Right of lnheritance 232 9.3.4 Buying the Right to Wait 233 9.3.5 Transferring Rights to Trees 233 9.3.6 Rights to Other Trees 234 236 9.4 CONCLUSIONS GHAPTER IO. EQ AND AUTONOMY 10.1 INTRODUCTION 237 10.2 EQUITYWITHIN THE SYSTEM 238 10.2.1 Adat and Equity 238 10.2.2 Equity and PropertY Rights 239 10.2.3 Functional EquitY 240 10.2.4 The Breakdown of EquitY 243 10.3 THE ECONOMICS OF AUTONOMY 245 10.4 THE POLITICAL ECOLOGY OF THE SYSTEM 247 10.5 THE ROLE OF SEMI-COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS IN CONSERVATION 249 258 10.6 CONCLUSION CHAPTER 1I . CONCLUSIONS 259 BIBLIOGRAPHY 261 APPENDICES Appendix Structure of lnterviews 1 Appendix 2 List of Tree Species Appendix 3 List of Vegetable Species Appendix 4 The History of Durian Cultivation in West Kalimantan. Appendix 5 List of Local Species of Banana by Local Name Appendix 6 List of Durians by Local name Appendix 7 Abundance and Frequency of All Species in Forest Gardens (in 50m x 50m plots) Appendix I Number of Trees by Classification (in 50m x50m plots) Appendix 9 Frequency of Durian Trees (by dbh in cm) in 50m x 50m plots Appendix 10 Household Size Appendix 11 Household Data (from lnterviews) lv LIST OF TABLES 4.1 lndonesian Land Management Classifications 110 5.1 The Area of Major Forest Types in West Kalimantan 122 5.2 Estimates of the Area of Natural Forest in West Kalimantan by Various Sources 126 7.3 Forest Garden ProductivitY 191 7.4 Common Animal and Bird Species in Forest Gardens 200 v LIST OF FIGURES 2.1 Simple (short term) relationships between variables in Oakerson's model 24 2.2 Complex (long term) relationships between variables in Oakerson's model 26 2.3 A model representing the functioning of a property system 30 2.4 A Model for Agroecosystem development 39 5.1 Political Divisions of Borneo 't13 5.2 Historical Kingdoms of West Kalimantan 116 5.3 Gunung Palung National Park and Study Area 121 5.44 Map of different Ethnic Enclaves within Batu Teritip 129 7.1 Range of Species by Height 155 7.2 a) Vertical and Horizontal Profile of a Garden after less than 5 years 158 7.2 b) Vertical and Horizontal Profile of a Garden after 5-10 years 159 7.2 c) Vertical and Horizontal Profile of a Garden after 15 years 160 7.3 Rainfall Pattern in Sukadana and Ketapang 167 7.4 Structural and Functional Profile 169 7.5 Classification of Species According to Utility 172 7.6 a) Frequency and Density of Species across Gardens (excluding bananas) 174 7.6 b)Frequency and density of Species across Gardens (including bananas) 175 7.7 the Relationship Between Land Area Owned and Durian Trees Owned 190 7.8 The Relationship Between Distance to Market and Price 194 7.9 Monthly Productivity of Tree Species in Forest Gardens and Prawn/Fish Harvests 195 8.1 Diagram of Vesicular-arbuscular and Ectomycorrhizas 212 Forest Garden Structure Above and Below Ground 218 vl LIST OF PLATES 7.1 Preparation of land for banana cultivation 150 7.2 Young banana plantation 150 7.3 Fruit trees emerging from banana canopy 151 7.4 Fruit tree canopy 151 7.5 Strata formation 152 7.6 Multi-storied forest garden 153 7 .7 fhe ripe fruit of the durian tree 165 7.8 A bumper crop of rambutan for sale in Teluk Melano 168 7.9 Storing unripe bananas in a pit until transportation for sale 177 7.10 Durian for sale after transportation 179 7.'11 Ayoung orang ufan caught in a nearby village 199 8.1 lnfected root tip of Durio sp showing coils and arbuscules 219 8.2 lnfected root tip of Artocarpus integer showing coils and arbuscules under entry point 220 9.1 Durian trees showing the markings of the owner 230 vll ABSTRACT This thesis uses a case study from West Kalimantan, lndonesia to examine the role that a semi-commercial complex agroforestry system can play in biodiversity conservation. lt discusses and questions current theory that commercial and semi-commercial systems are necessarily deleterious to the process of conservation in the developing tropics. To this end a review of current literature about the ecological interactions between people and the environment is undertaken. Within this context the concept of property is examined and the role that this institution plays in mediating human-environment interactions is discussed. Particular attention is given to the common property debate which argues that these regimes, typical of more traditional societies facilitate resource conservation, and that through the process of commercialisation and individualisation of production, resource degradation results. Using a human ecology perspective and incorporating principles of political ecology and agroecology the functioning of a semi-commercial complex agroforestry system is examined in terms of its structure, function, tenure and interaction with the external environment. The findings of this thesis are many fold. Firstly it finds that through the productive and protective functioning of the agroforestry system the semi-commercial nature of the system does not necessarily result in resource degradation, but may in fact promote biodiversity conservation. Secondly, results suggest that the introduction of commercial and individual production does not necessarily result production intensification or modification of the existing agroforestry system regime nor does it result in the complete demise of an existing common property regime: hence private tenure and common property are not incompatible. Finally, where production intensification does take place this does not necessarily result in resource degradation or demise of the protective function of the system, but may enhance this role. Thus, where non-traditional communities have, in the past, been rejected as possible participants in the process of conservation it should be recognised that they and their resource-use systems may in fact, be valuable participants in this process. Further, this thesis demonstrates that traditional systems can adapt to external political and economic pressure in a way that does not jeopardise the process of conservation. Value judgements about the role of traditional communities in conservation should not be made on the basis of the commercial status of a system, but rather judgement should be made on the merits of each system in terms of its sustainability and maintainability, and within the context of the broader political and economic environment. vlll ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS One of the recurring philosophical guesfions ls: ?oes a falling tree in the forest make a sound when there is no one to hear?" Which says someffiing about the nature of phitosophers, because there is always someone in a forest... At the very least, if it was deep enough in the forest, millions of small gods would have heard it. (SmallGods by Terry Pratchett, 1992) There are many without whom this PhD would not have been possible. First and foremost Associate Professor Lesley Potter and Dr. Ruth Lawrence must be thanked for their wisdom, guidance, persistence and patience (all necessary godly traits). So...Thank you. Thank you also to Prof. Graeme Hugo for his support and advice, and for having the confidence in me to see this project through. As well helping with my subsistence needs the Professors F.A. and S.E. Smith provided much moral support, love, encouragement as well as timely advice. Thank you. The people of Batu Teritip deserve a special, extra big mention, because without them this project would never have been possible. All of the residents of Batu Teritip must be acknowledged for their roles in this project: for making me feel welcome, for being open, honest and accepting. Special mention must go to Bapak Minan and family, Bapak Hamjah and family, Bapak Bani and Bapak Saukan in Mentubang, lbu Maina, Biru, Sangkut, Bapak Dulah and family and Basirun. There are also numerous others in West Kalimantan who must be acknowledged including everyone at KSDA Pontianak, particularly Bapak Enruin and Bapak Tony; at KSDA Sukadana and Teluk Melano; everyone at the Wisma Patria; and, the gang at Cabang Panti. To Dr. Heruyono Hadisuparto and Bapak Rektor (Universitas Tanjungpura) thank you for sponsoring this project. Others who must be mentioned (in no particular order) are Caroline Smith, Lindsay Harley, Bob, Nigel, Hector, Sue Murray, Braden Pierson, Simon Badcock, Justin Lee, Steve Kirkby, Judee Mayer, Elysa Hammond and Chuck Peters. Also, to Jo, Bindy, Helen, Jacqui, Sam, Petra, Dasher, Sauly, Mike, Andrew, Kate, Bec, Kerstin and Ken...thank you for putting up with endless complaining, diagnosing strange illnesses, acting as a sounding board for ideas, listening to my constant diatribe about Borneo, and for providing moral support. To The Arrogants, The Queen is Dead, Motorheads, Stepney Saints, and Ladies B, thank you for providing me with an outlet for my frustrations. Sponsorship for this project came from: An Australian Award for Research in Asia from The Australian Vice-Chancellor's Research Committee; The lndonesian lnstitute of Sciences (LlPl), An Australian Postgraduate Research Award, The University of Adelaide, and Universitas Tanjungpura (Pontianak). Ihrs fhesis is dedicated to Professor J.L.(Jack) Harley, Professor Harold Woolhouse and Mr. Timothy Gent. x