Self-Portraiture and Allegory in the Paintings of Seán Keating, 1915–50 by Brandi Shantelle Goddard A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in History of Art, Design and Visual Culture Department of Art and Design University of Alberta © Brandi Shantelle Goddard, 2016 Abstract In 1915, Ireland was on the brink of the revolutionary Easter Rising. By 1949, the nation was officially declared a republic, no longer part of the British Commonwealth. These years flank the creation of five paintings by the Irish artist Seán Keating in which the painter has included his own portrait within the various scenes. These paintings, as alle- gorical self-portraits, allow for a diachronic construction of an artistic identity based on the visual figure’s position vis-a-vis the dominant ideology of the period. Keating’s self-portraits transition from violent nationalist in Men of the West through a period of revolutionary disavowal and a flirtation with socialism in An Allegory and Night’s Candles are Burnt Out respectively. Finally, Ulysses in Connemara and Economic Pressure, or a Bold Peasant Be- ing Destroyed exhibit the artist in the role of an emigrant forced to leave Ireland due to lack of economic and social opportunities. Utilizing Louis Althusser’s theory of art and ideology from A Letter on Art in Reply to André Daspre, this thesis argues that Keating’s inclusion of his likeness within these five paintings may be understood as a visual com- mentary on the shifting and tumultuous ideological state of affairs in Ireland during the first half of the twentieth century. 
 �ii Acknowledgments First and foremost I wish to express my gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Joan Greer for her guidance and patience throughout this project. I would also like to thank my other com- mittee members, Dr. Betsy Boone and Dr. Robert Brazeau, for their input and helpful sug- gestions throughout this project. I wish to acknowledge funding I received for this project in the form of grants and assist- antships from the Department of Art and Design at the University of Alberta, as well as funds for travel to Ireland granted by the Graduate Student Association at the University of Alberta. Finally, an enormous thank you to my friends, family and colleagues for all the support and encouragement received throughout the course of this project. Brandi S. Goddard January, 2016 �iii Contents List of Figures ………………………………………………………….……….. v List of Abbreviations ………………………………………………….……….. vii Introduction ……………………………………………………………………. 1 Chapter One: Violence and the Irish Nation ………………………………… 15 Chapter Two: Free State Beginnings…………………………………………… 44 Chapter Three: Leaving Connacht ……………………………………………. 77 Conclusion ……………………………….…………..……………….…….…. 104 Bibliography …………………………………………………………………… 107 Appendix One: Figures ………………………………………….…….……… 114 i�v List of Figures 1. Seán Keating, Men of the West, 1915. Oil on canvas, 97 x 125 cm. Crawford Art Gallery. Reproduced from Hugh Lane Gallery, www.hughlane.ie (accessed July 9, 2015). 2. Seán Keating, An Allegory, 1924. Oil on canvas, 102 cm x 130 cm. National Gallery of Ireland. Reproduced from Crawford Art Gallery, http://www.crawfordgallery.ie (accessed August 26, 2015). 3. Seán Keating, Night’s Candles Are Burnt Out, 1928-9. Oil on canvas, 103 cm x 127 cm. Gallery Oldham. Reproduced from BBC, Your Paintings, http://www.bbc.co.uk (accessed August 26, 2015). 4. Seán Keating, Ulysses in Connemara, 1947-50. Oil on board, 121 cm x 121 cm. Private Collection. Reproduced from Éimear O’Connor, Seán Keating: Art, Politics, and Building the Irish Nation (Dublin, Irish Academic Press, 2013), 154. 5. Seán Keating, Economic Pressure, or a Bold Peasant Being Destroyed, 1949-50. Oil on board, 121 cm x 121 cm. Crawford Art Gallery. Reproduced from Éimear O’Connor, Seán Keating: Art, Politics, and Building the Irish Nation (Dublin, Irish Academic Press, 2013), 154. 6. Thomas Hudson, George II of Great Britain, 1744. Oil on canvas, 219 cm x 147 cm. National Portrait Gallery, London. Reproduced from Wikimedia Commons (accessed November 12, 2015). 7. Joseph Wright of Derby, Portrait of Richard Arwkright, 1789-90. Oil on canvas, 126 cm x 102 cm. Private Collection. Reproduced from Wikimedia Commons (accessed November 12, 2015). 8. James Sinton Sleator, Portrait of Sir William Orpen RA, RHA (1878-1931), ca. 1916. Oil on canvas, 97 cm x 92 cm. Crawford Gallery, Cork. Reproduced from Crawford Gallery, www.crawfordartgallery.ie (accessed November 12, 2015). 9. William Orpen, The Man From Aran, 1909. Oil on canvas, 119 cm x 86 cm. Private Collection. Reproduced from Wikimedia Commons, www.commons.wikimedia.org (accessed July 9, 2015). 10. William Orpen, Man of Aran, Seán Keating, 1915. Oil on canvas, dimensions unknown. Limerick City Gallery. Reproduced from Eimear O’Connor, Sean Keating: Art, Politics and Building the Irish Nation (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2013), 59. 11. Luke Fildes, The Doctor, 1890. Oil on canvas, 166 cm x 242 cm. Tate Gallery, London. Reproduced from Tate Gallery, www.tate.org.uk (accessed July 9, 2015) �v 12. Luke Fildes, The Widower, 1876. Oil on canvas, 169 cm x 248 cm. Art Gallery of New South Wales. Reproduced from Gallery of New South Wales, http://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au (accessed July 9, 2015). 13. Seán Keating, Dia, Tir is Teanga, Frontispiece for the Nationalist Ideal, 1931. Private Collection. Reproduced from Éimear O’Connor, Seán Keating: Art, Politics, and Building the Irish Nation (Dublin, Irish Academic Press, 2013), 92. 14. John Tenniel, Fenian Pest, illustration in Punch Magazine, 3 March, 1866. Reproduced from Wiki Commons, http://www.commons.wikimedia.org (accessed August 26, 2015). 15. Seán Keating, Homo Sapiens, An Allegory of Democracy, 1930. Oil on canvas, dimensions unknown. Private Collection. Reproduced from Éimear O’Connor, Seán Keating: Art, Politics, and Building the Irish Nation (Dublin, Irish Academic Press, 2013), 144. 16. Seán Keating, Sacred and Profane Love, 1937. Oil on canvas, dimensions unknown. Private Collection. Reproduced from Crawford Art Gallery, http:// www.crawfordartgallery.ie (accessed October 23, 2015).
 v� i List of Abbreviations DMSA: Dublin Metropolitan School of Art ESB: Electricity Supply Board DORA: Defence of the Realm Act GPO: General Post Office ICA: Irish Citizen’s Army IRA: Irish Republican Army IRB: Irish Republican Brotherhood ISA: Ideological State Apparatus ITGWU: Irish Transportation and General Workers’ Union NGI: National Gallery of Ireland RDS: Royal Dublin Society RHA: Royal Hibernian Academy RSA: Repressive State Apparatus TCD: Trinity College Dublin UVF: Ulster Volunteer Force �vii Introduction On Easter Monday, 1916 seven young Irish nationalists signed their names to a document proclaiming the establishment of an Irish Republic. These men then led the oc- cupation of the General Post Office (GPO) in central Dublin.1 Less than three weeks later, all seven signatories were dead, executed by British Crown forces at Kilmainham Gaol. Though the Easter Rising failed, it spurred a movement which would culminate in the An- glo-Irish Treaty of 1921 and the establishment of the Irish Free State. Free from direct British interference for the first time in nearly a millennium, Ireland was left to establish itself politically, economically and socially as an independent nation. Culturally, Ireland had been struggling to reassert the dominance of traditional Irish values and customs for decades prior to the Easter Rising. The markers of Irish identity had been neglected and forgotten during centuries of English-rule. This thesis examines Ireland during the first half of the twentieth century when the creation of a distinct Irish identity was of paramount concern to the nation; more specifically within the visual arts, five paintings from 1915 to 1950 by the Irish artist Seán Keating (1889-1977) will be analyzed in order to reveal the ways in which the artist made use of the artistic device of allegory to depict Ireland’s struggle with its newly established independence. Though Keating’s paint- ings exhibit an evolving picture of Irish affairs, more personally, they are also documentary evidence of Keating’s own shifting and multivalent self-identity, expressed through the self- portraits he included in these paintings. 1 The signatories were: Éamonn Ceannt, Tom Clarke, James Connolly, Seán Mac- Dermott, Thomas MacDonagh, Padraig Pearse and Joseph Plunkett. �1 Background: Ireland and the Artist Seán Keating was born in the small town of Limerick on 28 September 1889, the same year that saw the downfall, through an adultery scandal, of the larger-than-life Irish nationalist Charles Stewart Parnell (1846-91).2 This was also the year that future revolu- tionary James Connolly (1868-1916) deserted the British Army, with which he had been stationed in Ireland for seven years. Connolly returned to Edinburgh, where he grew inter- ested in Socialism and Irish nationalism, ultimately leading him to become one of the leading signatories of the 1916 Republican Declaration.3 Keating died in 1977, a decade in which more than two thousand people lost their lives in the nationalist conflict known as the Troubles.4 The artist’s life and career coincided with a turbulent and oftentimes vio- lent period in Irish history; therefore, it is unsurprising that the motifs of independence, war and the state are common in his oeuvre. The issue of independence in Ireland was closely tied to the Labour Union move- ment, which became a force in Irish politics in the second decade of the twentieth century. In 1913, when Keating was an art student at the Dublin Metropolitan School of Art (DMSA), a generalized lockout occurred which is considered by many scholars to be the 2 Parnell was arguably the most influential figure within Irish politics in the nine- teenth century. He was the elected president of the national Land League, and fought for reforms to the landlord-tenant situation throughout rural Ireland. He was publicly dis- graced when it was revealed he had maintained a years-long relationship with the wife of one of his main supporters. It was also found that he had fathered three of her children. 3 James Connolly, History Learning Site, http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/ james_connolly.htm, accessed July 9, 2015. 4 Simon Rogers, “Deaths in the Northern Ireland Conflict Since 1969,”The Guardian, June 10, 2010, http://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2010/jun/10/deaths- in-northern-ireland-conflict-data. Of the 2092 deaths indicated in this source between the years 1970-9, 1173, or 56% were civilians. �2 initiation of the period referred to as the Irish Revolution.5 Spearheaded by Jim Larkin and the Irish Transportation and General Workers’ Union (ITGWU), the 1913 Lockout was a point in Irish history during which the working classes rebelled against both their employ- ers and the state to protest the poor pay and squalid conditions in which they lived.6 The labour movement, along with the Socialist-Republican writings of Connolly, was a major ideological influence on Keating, who held left-leaning political views. However, these appear only rarely and tacitly within his art and writings, due to the fact that they might have jeopardized his position within the DMSA and the Royal Hibernian Academy (RHA). 1913 was also the year that both the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and the Irish Vol- unteers militia groups were formed. These paramilitary groups, sympathizers to unionism and republicanism respectively,7 influenced Keating’s views on violence and war in re- gards the Irish situation, and undoubtedly the artist had these groups in mind when he created his first allegorical self-portrait in 1915, Men of the West (fig. 1). The period of 1916-23 was extremely volatile and violent within Ireland; however, these issues are not 5 See Joost Augusteijn, ed.,The Irish Revolution: 1913-1923 (New York: Palgrave, 2002). 6 Adrian Grant, Irish Socialist Republicanism, 1909-36 (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2012), 48-9. It is well-accepted by scholars that Dublin of the early twentieth century was amongst the worst places within Europe to reside. See Mary E. Daly, Dublin, The Deposed Capital: A Social and Economic History, 1860-1914 (Cork: Cork University Press, 1984). 7 For clarity, these terms, when used with lower-case initial letters, imply the politi- cal associations of the groups. Unionists are those who wish to remain loyal to the British state and for Ireland to remain within the United Kingdom. Republicanism is the move- ment which sought the independence of Ireland from the United Kingdom and the estab- lishment of a completely separate governmental and economic system. Based on these ideological divisions, various unionist and republican movements and organizations un- dertook missions and campaigns with varying levels of intrigue and violence. �3