Secularism or Democracy? IMISCOE (International Migration, Integration and Social Cohesion) IMISCOE is a European Commission-funded Network of Excellence of more than 350scientists from various research institutes thatspecialise in migration and integration issues in Europe. These researchers, who come from allbranches oftheeconomicandsocialsciences,thehuma- nities and law, implement an integrated, multidisciplinary and interna- tionally comparative research programme that focuses on Europe’s mi- gration andintegration challenges. Within the programme, existing research is integrated and new re- search lines are developed to address issues crucial to European-level policymaking and provide a theory-based design to implement new re- search. The publication programme of IMISCOE is based on five distinct publica- tion profiles, designed to make its research and results available to scientists, policymakers and the public at large. High-quality manu- scripts written by – or in cooperation with – IMISCOE members are pub- lished in these five series. An editorial committee coordinates the re- view process of the manuscripts.Thefive series are: 1. Joint Studies 2. Research 3. Dissertations 4. Reports 5. Textbooks More information on thenetwork can be foundat: www.imiscoe.org. IMISCOE Research includes publications resulting from research of IMISCOE members, such as research monographsandeditedvolumes. Secularism or Democracy? Associational Governance of Religious Diversity Veit Bader IMISCOE Research Cover illustration: This section of tiles, entitled ‘Tres Culturas’, com- posesapanelinoneofthemanymuralsfoundinFrigiliana.Likeothers tilesseeninthevillagesofAndalusia’sAxarqu´ıaregion,itmemorialises the settlement, resistance and eventual massacre of the Moriscos after theReconquista.PhotobyVeitBader. Cover design:StudioJan de Boer BNO,Amsterdam Layout: The DocWorkers,Almere ISBN 978 90 5356999 3 NUR 741 /763 ©VeitBader /Amsterdam University Press 2007 All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright re- served above, no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in or in- troduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the written permission of both the copyright owner and the authorof the book. Summary contents Preface Introduction Contested religious pluralism Part I Modernstates and religions, sociological and historical considerations: setting the stage 1 Secularisation and separation?Institutional diversityof religious governance Part II Reconceptualising principlesand makingpolitical philosophy fit for the task of accommodating religious diversity 2 Contextualisingmorality: moralminimalism, relational neutrality,fairnessas even-handedness 3 Priorityfor liberal democracyorsecularism?Why Iam not asecularist Part III Dilemmas and limits of accommodation, principles and cases: applying moral minimalism 4 Religious freedoms andother human rights, moral conundrums and hardcases 5 Relational neutrality and even-handedness towards religions:softercases and symbolic issues 6 SECULARISMORDEMOCRACY? Part IV Institutionalmodelsof democracy and religious governance:associative democracy 6 Moderately agonisticdemocracy, democraticinstitutional pluralism, associative democracy andthe incorporation of minorities 7 Normative modelsof religious governance: associative democracy, amoral defence 8 Dilemmas ofinstitutionalisation;associative democracy, church autonomy andequal treatment ofreligions 9 A realisticdefence ofassociative democracy 10 Associative democracyand education Conclusions Notes References Index ofnames Index ofsubjects Detailed contents Summary contents 5 Detailedcontents 7 Preface 13 Introduction: Contested religious pluralism 17 Part I Modernstates and religions, sociological and historical considerations: setting the stage 33 1 Secularisation and separation? Institutional diversity of religious governance 35 1.1 Religions andreligion 36 1.2 Secularisation 39 1.2.1 Decline of religion(s)? 41 1.2.2 Individualisation, subjectivisation,and privatisationof religion(s)? 43 1.2.2.1 ‘Individualisation’ or ‘subjectivisation’? 43 1.2.2.2 Privatisation of religions? 44 1.2.3 Minimalorcomplete differentiation? 46 1.2.4 Conclusions 48 1.3 Institutional diversity of religious governance in recent Western states 49 1.3.1 Governance andgovernment ofreligious diversity 49 1.3.2 Path-dependent patternsand regimes of religious governance in the West 50 1.3.3 Institutional diversity of Western governmental regimes 53 1.3.3.1 Constitutional regimes 54 1.3.3.2 Constitutional reality 54 1.3.3.3 Legal status of (organised)religions 55 1.3.3.4 Autonomyofchurches and religious communities 56 1.3.3.5 Financingof religions 58 8 SECULARISMORDEMOCRACY? 1.3.3.6 Regulationand financingoffaith-based educational institutions 58 1.3.3.7 Regulationand financingofreligious instruction in public schools 59 1.3.3.8 Regulationand financingoffaith-based care and social service organisations 60 1.3.3.9 Anemerging European regime ofreligious governance? 61 1.4 Lessonsforpolitical philosophers 62 Part II Reconceptualising principlesand making political philosophy fit for the task of accommodating religiousdiversity 65 2 Contextualisingmorality:moralminimalism, relational neutrality,and fairnessas even-handedness 67 2.1 ‘Aviewfrom nowhere’ or relativism? Moderate universalism 68 2.2 Moral minimalism and differentiated moralstandards 70 2.2.1 Autonomyor toleration 73 2.2.2Liberalism and/or democracy: democratic temptations 78 2.2.3Moral minimalism’sproblems 79 2.3 Moderateanti-perfectionism and relational neutrality 82 2.4 Fairnessas even-handedness 86 2.5 Contextualised morality 89 2.6 Aplea foran institutionalist turn 92 3 Priorityfor liberal democracyorsecularism?Why Iam not asecularist 93 3.1 Contextualisingsecularism: shouldliberal-democratic states be secular and,if so, inwhichsense? 95 3.1.1 Historical contextualisation 95 3.1.2 Structural contextualisation: differentkindsof threats 98 3.1.3 Societal andcultural secularisation andstrategic issues 100 3.2 First-order justifications: ethical and political secularism? 102 3.3 Second-order justifications: secular, independent political ethics? 104 3.4 Priorityfor liberal democracy 109 3.4.1 Freedomsofpolitical communication 110 3.4.2Anti-paternalist decision-making 112 3.5 Philosophicalfoundationalism or priority for democracy? 113 3.6 Religions anddemocracy 117 3.7 Priorityfor democracy vs. religious challenges 122 DETAILEDCONTENTS 9 Part III Dilemmas and limits of accommodation, principles and cases: applying moral minimalism 127 4 Religious freedoms andother human rights, moral conundrums and hardcases 129 4.1 Religious freedoms 130 4.1.1 Religious freedom,religious freedoms 130 4.1.2 Negative freedoms ofreligion 131 4.1.3 Negative andpositive freedoms 133 4.1.4Positivefreedoms and equal treatmentofreligions 134 4.2 Groups,conflicts and issues 136 4.2.1 Minorities 136 4.2.2Issues 138 4.2.3Three theoretical and political options 138 4.3 Associationalfreedoms versus nondiscriminationand equal opportunities 141 4.3.1 Nondiscriminationand theshield ofprivacy 142 4.3.2Religious versus economic organisations 143 4.3.3 Central versus peripheralactivities to faith 144 4.3.4Unduly disadvantaging outsiders 145 4.3.5 Dangersof publicscrutinyand financing 145 4.4 Modern criminal law versus nomos of certain ethno- religious groups 148 4.5 Religious versus civic marriage and divorce law 150 5 Relational neutrality and even-handedness towards religions: softer cases and symbolicissues 153 5.1 Practicaland symbolic accommodation:claims,resistance and policy responses 153 5.2 Educationand religious diversity 155 5.2.1 Contentofeducation,curricular pluralisation 157 5.2.1.1 Religious educationand instructionin governmental schools 158 5.2.1.2 Publicly financed non-governmental religious schools 160 5.2.2 Pedagogy andeducationalcultures 162 5.3 Pragmatic accommodation ofreligiousminority practices 164 5.4 Highly orpurely symbolicissues 166 5.5 Representationin the political process 171