Second Language Use Online and its Integration in Formal Language Learning SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Series Editors: Professor David Singleton, University of Pannonia, Hungary and Fellow Emeritus, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland and Associate Professor Simone E. Pfenninger, University of Salzburg, Austria This series brings together titles dealing with a variety of aspects of language acquisition and processing in situations where a language or languages other than the native language is involved. Second language is thus interpreted in its broadest possible sense. The volumes included in the series all offer in their different ways, on the one hand, exposition and discussion of empirical findings and, on the other, some degree of theoretical reflection. In this latter connection, no particular theoretical stance is privileged in the series; nor is any relevant perspective – sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic, neurolinguistic, etc. – deemed out of place. The intended readership of the series includes final-year undergraduates working on second language acquisition projects, postgraduate students involved in second language acquisition research, and researchers, teachers and policymakers in general whose interests include a second language acquisition component. All books in this series are externally peer-reviewed. Full details of all the books in this series and of all our other publications can be found on http://www .multilingual -matters .com, or by writing to Multilingual Matters, St Nicholas House, 31-34 High Street, Bristol, BS1 2AW, UK. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: 153 Second Language Use Online and its Integration in Formal Language Learning From Chatroom to Classroom Andrew D. Moffat MULTILINGUAL MATTERS Bristol • Jackson DOI https://doi.org/10.21832/MOFFAT3627 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. Names: Moffat, Andrew D., author. Title: Second Language Use Online and its Integration in Formal Language Learning: From Chatroom to Classroom/Andrew D. Moffat. Description: Bristol, UK; Jackson, TN: Multilingual Matters, [2022] | Series: Second Language Acquisition: 153 | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “This book addresses questions surrounding online second language (L2) communicative activities and formal language learning. It provides empirical evidence and analysis of the scale and nature of L2 English communicative activities online and explores the possibilities for language teaching practices that engage with learners’ L2 online activities”—Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2022001042 (print) | LCCN 2022001043 (ebook) | ISBN 9781800413627 (hardback) | ISBN 9781800413641 (epub) | ISBN 9781800413634 (pdf) Subjects: LCSH: Second language acquisition. | English language—Web-based instruction. | English language—Computer-assisted instruction for foreign speakers. | English language—Study and teaching—Foreign speakers. | Internet in education. Classification: LCC P118.2 .M64 2022 (print) | LCC P118.2 (ebook) | DDC 401/.93—dc23/eng/20220316 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022001042 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022001043 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue entry for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN-13: 978-1-80041-362-7 (hbk) Multilingual Matters UK: St Nicholas House, 31-34 High Street, Bristol, BS1 2AW, UK. USA: Ingram, Jackson, TN, USA. Website: www .multilingual -matters .com Twitter: Multi_Ling_Mat Facebook: https://www .facebook .com /multilingualmatters Blog: www .cha nnel view publ ications .wordpress .com Copyright © 2022 Andrew D. Moffat. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher. The policy of Multilingual Matters/Channel View Publications is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products, made from wood grown in sustainable forests. In the manufacturing process of our books, and to further support our policy, preference is given to printers that have FSC and PEFC Chain of Custody certification. The FSC and/or PEFC logos will appear on those books where full certification has been granted to the printer concerned. Typeset by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India. Printed and bound in the UK by the CPI Group Ltd. Contents Figures ix Tables xi Acknowledgements xiii Abbreviations xv 1 A Thoroughly Modern Medium 1 1.1 Aims of the Book 2 1.2 Focus on Computer-Mediated Communication 2 1.3 Defining the Object of Study 3 1.4 Research Gap and Contributions to Knowledge 5 1.5 Partnership with Cambridge University Press 6 1.6 Research Questions and Research Design 6 1.7 Structure of the Book 7 2 Situating the Research 9 2.1 Informal Second Language Learning 9 2.2 L2 English Computer-Mediated Communication 18 2.3 Complexity in Language Learning 28 2.4 Activity Theory 30 2.5 Conclusion 33 3 Research Methods 35 3.1 Research Questions 36 3.2 RQ1 and RQ2: A Survey-Based Approach 37 3.3 Questionnaire Design 38 3.4 Piloting and Modifications 40 3.5 Data Collection and Processing 40 3.6 Initial Description of the Data 41 4 EL2 CMC Activities and Communicative (Dis)Comfort 47 4.1 Language Activities and Language Functions 47 4.2 Functional Approaches to Language 48 4.3 Outlining a Functionally Motivated Language Activity 49 4.4 Affective Barriers to Language Acquisition 51 4.5 Constructing the Questionnaire 51 v vi Contents 4.6 Comfort with L2 Use Online 54 4.7 Conclusion 64 5 Contexts and Attitudes 65 5.1 Classifying CMC 66 5.2 Constructing the Questionnaire 69 5.3 Surveying Socio-Technical Configurations of EL2 CMC Usage 74 5.4 EL2 CMC and Language Learning: Beliefs and Attitudes 82 5.5 EL2 CMC, Informal Learning and the Language Classroom 88 6 Difficulties Encountered in EL2 CMC Interactions 90 6.1 Survival of the Fittest 90 6.2 Systemic Contradictions 91 6.3 Methodology: Constructing this Section of the Questionnaire 91 6.4 Difficulties of EL2 CMC Reported by L2 English Users 93 6.5 Quantitative Analysis 106 6.6 Summary: Difficulties Encountered in EL2 CMC 114 7 Language Online: A Corpus Study 116 7.1 Computer-Mediated Discourse Analysis 117 7.2 Digital Conversation: Speech, Writing or Something Else? 117 7.3 Corpus Analysis 122 7.4 Idiosyncratic Use of Common Language Items: Analyzing CANELC 127 7.5 Non-Standard Typography 128 7.6 Keywords in CANELC 128 7.7 Typographic Variation 145 7.8 Filling in the Gaps: Instant Messaging 153 7.9 Relating Speech, Writing and CMC 154 7.10 Conclusion 157 8 Towards an Integration of EL2 CMC and Formal Instruction 159 8.1 Why Integrate? 160 8.2 Goals 161 8.3 Linked Activity Systems: The Case of Almon 162 8.4 Incidental Learning and Multiple Motives 167 8.5 A Macro-Functional Needs Analysis 170 8.6 A Language Awareness Approach 175 8.7 Proposed Classroom Methodology: Show and Tell 179 8.8 Almon Revisited 185 8.9 Conclusion 186 Contents vii 9 Conclusion 188 9.1 Research Questions Revisited 188 9.2 Contributions 191 9.3 Limitations 192 9.4 Future Research Directions 193 9.5 Closing Remarks 194 References 196 Appendix A: Questionnaire 207 Appendix B: Codebook from Qualitative Analysis 215 Index 221 Figures 2.1 From exposure to acquisition 21 2.2 Engeström’s activity system, adapted from Engeström (1987) with permission from Taylor and Francis 30 3.1 Distribution of respondents by country of nationality 42 3.2 Distribution of respondents by country of location 43 3.3 Age distribution of respondents 44 3.4 English-level distribution of respondents 45 3.5 Classification of respondent location 45 4.1 Prioritization of motives among macro-functions 53 4.2 Divergent bar chart showing questionnaire responses regarding comfort level 54 4.3 English proficiency level distribution across location types 61 5.1 Frequency of English use in STCs 73 5.2 STCs ranked by ‘Highly Frequent’, following recoding 74 5.3 STC frequency mode values. The values 1–4 along the horizontal axis correspond to the frequency categories Unusual, Occasional, Habitual and Highly Frequent respectively 75 5.4 Breakdown of STC categories showing sub-groupings 76 5.5 Mean frequency of STC use, stratified by age group. The integer values on the vertical axis correspond to the original response options in the questionnaire, in order of ascending frequency: higher values signify increased average frequency 78 5.6 Mean frequency of STC use, stratified by English level 79 5.7 Mean frequency of STC use, stratified by classification of country of location 80 5.8 Overall response distribution to items in Question 26 83 5.9 Questionnaire item 26.1 stratified by age 84 5.10 Questionnaire item 26.1 stratified by English proficiency level 84 5.11 Questionnaire item 26.2 stratified by classification of country of residence 85 5.12 Questionnaire item 26.2 stratified by age 85 ix x Figures 5.13 Questionnaire item 26.2 stratified by English proficiency level 85 5.14 Questionnaire item 26.2 stratified by classification of country of residence 86 5.15 Questionnaire item 26.3 stratified by age 87 5.16 Questionnaire item 26.3 stratified by level 88 5.17 Questionnaire item 26.3 stratified by classification of country of residence 88 7.1 Comparing first- and second-person pronoun use 134 7.2 Uses of ‘this’ in business email and personal email 136 7.3 Distributions of the four senses of ‘just’ in samples of 50 concordance lines in CANELC and across the subcorpora 141 7.4 Proportions of the two senses of ‘too’ 143 7.5 Relative frequency of ‘really’ and ‘very’ 144 7.6 Response latency model, showing the relationship between different communication types, whether spoken, written or computer mediated. Numbered positions are intended as approximate exemplars of (fictional) instances of communication 156 8.1 Almon’s unsuccessful classroom learning activity system 163 8.2 Almon’s EL2 CMC activity system, linking to his classroom learning system 165 8.3 Almon’s successful classroom learning developing the tools of his EL2 CMC system 166 8.4 Additional elements in the EL2 CMC activity system, fostered through a language awareness approach 177