Searching for Life http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft1199n6w2&chunk.id=0&doc.... Preferred Citation: Arditti, Rita. Searching for Life: The Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo and the Disappeared Children of Argentina. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1999 1999. http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft1199n6w2/ Searching for Life The Grandmothers of the Plaza De Mayo and the Disappeared Children of Argentina Rita Arditti UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS Berkeley · Los Angeles · Oxford © 1999 The Regents of the University of California For the Grandmothers and in loving memory of my mother, Rosa Cordovero de Arditti, and of Renée Epelbaum, Mother of the Plaza de Mayo/Línea Fundadora Preferred Citation: Arditti, Rita. Searching for Life: The Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo and the Disappeared Children of Argentina. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1999 1999. http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft1199n6w2/ For the Grandmothers and in loving memory of my mother, Rosa Cordovero de Arditti, and of Renée Epelbaum, Mother of the Plaza de Mayo/Línea Fundadora ― xi ― Acknowledgments Many people in Argentina and in the United States gave me practical help and nourished my spirit. While in Buenos Aires I was fortunate to be able to stay in the home of my sister and brother-in-law, Edith and Jaime Benveniste, and of my cousin Renée Blankleder. They supported me in every conceivable way. Without their help this book would not have happened. Many thanks also to my sister Alicia Arditti, to my cousins Laura and Eduardo Marbach, to Julia and Jan Lichtig, to Sylvia Kossoy, and to my aunt Daisy Wollenberger. My friend Alicia d'Amico kept me informed of the latest political developments in Argentina and sent me crucial clippings from Buenos Aires newspapers. Her comments were always illuminating. Magui Bellotti and Marta Fontenla from ATEM (Asociación de Trabajo y Estudios de la Mujer) helped me learn about current feminist debates in Argentina and provided the connection with Lita Boitano, from 1 of 157 7/12/2006 11:25 PM Searching for Life http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft1199n6w2&chunk.id=0&doc.... Familiares de Detenidos y Desaparecidos por Razones Políticas, who put me in touch with HIJOS (Hijos por la Identidad y la Justicia, contra el Olvido y el Silencio). Juan Jorge Fariña shared ideas and resources and Esteban Costa provided encouragement and an attentive ear. Graciela Mabel Wolfenson, Ariel Pereyra, and María Adela Antokoletz (daughter) skillfully transcribed interviews. The late Renée Epelbaum and María Adela Antokoletz (mother), from the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo/Línea Fundadora, were (and are) a constant inspiration. Alejandro Inchaurregui from the Equipo Argentino de Antropología Forense provided detailed information about some of the pregnant women killed after the delivery of their children. Cristian Camusso helped me ― xii ― get access to out-of-print publications. Marcelo Pablo Castillo shared his graphics archive. María Santa Cruz, Analía Rivadera, and Daniel Bustamante at the Grandmothers' office were invariably helpful. Abel Madariaga kept me informed, electronically, on the latest developments of the Grandmothers' work. In the United States, I am indebted to Christine Dinsmore for suggesting that I contact the University of California Press and to Becky Thompson, Cynthia Enloe, and Gilda Bruckman for sound advice about publishing. Shelley Minden and Tatiana Schreiber read selected chapters and made many excellent suggestions. George A. Stewart and Janine Baer read the chapter on the right to identity, provided references, and gave me useful and pointed feedback. Elly Bulkin, most generously, read the whole manuscript. Her intelligent and sensitive comments were invaluable. Brinton Lykes introduced me to the work of Ignacio Martín-Baró and Jean Hardisty, and the late Jeanmarie Marshall encouraged me constantly. Elliot G. Mishler provided me with a copy of his book on research interviewing, which helped solidify my approach. Blue Lundgren invited me to give a talk about the Grandmothers at the Women's Village in Sugarloaf Key in Florida. The reception I experienced from the women at the commune greatly boosted my spirits. Marguerite Feitlowitz, while completing her own book about Argentina, generously shared resources. Many thanks to Markéta Freund and Enriqueta Horenovsky, who through their work with Amnesty International provided support to the Grandmothers and organized their trips to the United States. I owe special gratitude to Victor B. Penchaszadeh and Inés Musacchio, who introduced me to the work of the Grandmothers, and to César Chelala for information, comments, and support. Many thanks to Lawrence Weschler, who provided me with the address of Rev. Jaime Wright in Brazil, and to Bert B. Lockwood Jr. for the address of Theo van Boven in the Netherlands. Eva Fleischner and Susan Zuccotti in the United States and Sabine Zeitoun from the Centre d'Histoire de la Résistance et de la Déportation in Lyon, France, helped me with the Finaly case, and my friend Dick D'Ari, in Paris, sent me Jacob Kaplan's book. My nephew Martín Benveniste, also from Paris, provided me with Irene Barki's book. The Cambridge Public Library staff and their reference desk were always patient and friendly. Also, during the writing of this book I enjoyed the friendship and support of many of my colleagues from the Union Institute. ― xiii ― My son, Federico, his spouse, Naïma Benali, and their daughter, Layla Muchnik, reminded me by their presence of my multiple blessings and helped with sources in French and editing. My compañera Estelle Disch thought with me about the organization of the material, encouraged me from the very beginning, and patiently read all my drafts. Her firsthand knowledge and love for the Grandmothers made all the difference. My editor at the University of California Press, Naomi Schneider, was enthusiastic from the start and unfailingly supportive as the work progressed. Many thanks to Alice Falk for her intelligent and careful copyediting, to Sue Heinemann for demystifying and coordinating the production process, and to Estrella Fichter for her work in publicity and marketing. My heartfelt gratitude to all the people who agreed to be interviewed for the book and who patiently educated me about the various aspects of the Grandmothers' work. The Thanks Be to Grandmother Winifred Foundation was the sole source of financial support for this project. Their grant helped pay for travel and transcription expenses. The Foundation, which gives grants to women fifty-four years old and over, can be contacted at P.O. Box 1449, Wainscott, NY 11975-1449. I am forever thankful for their support. ― xv ― 2 of 157 7/12/2006 11:25 PM Searching for Life http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft1199n6w2&chunk.id=0&doc.... Acronyms AAA Alianza Anticomunista Argentina, also known as Triple A (Argentine Anticommunist Alliance) AAAS American Association for the Advancement of Science ANCLA Agencia de Noticias Clandestinas (Clandestine News Agency) APDH Asamblea Permanente por los Derechos Humanos (Permanent Assembly for Human Rights) CEA Conferencia Episcopal Argentina (Argentine Episcopal Conference) CELS Centro de Estudios Legales y Sociales (Center for Legal and Social Studies) CGT Confederación General del Trabajo (General Workers Confederation) CI Cadena Informativa (Information Network) CONADEP Comisión Nacional sobre la Desaparición de Personas (National Commission on the Disappeared) EAAF Equipo Argentino de Antropología Forense (Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team) ERP Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo (People's Revolutionary Army) ― xvi ― ESMA Escuela Superior de Mécanica de la Armada (Navy Mechanics School) 3 of 157 7/12/2006 11:25 PM Searching for Life http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft1199n6w2&chunk.id=0&doc.... FEDEFAM Federación Latinoamericana de Asociaciones de Familiares de Detenidos-Desaparecidos (Latin American Federation of Associations for Relatives of the Detained and Disappeared) HIJOS Hijos por la Identidad y la Justicia, contra el Olvido y el Silencio (Children for Identity and Justice against Oblivion and Silence) IACHR Inter American Commission on Human Rights MEDH Movimiento Ecuménico por los Derechos Humanos (Ecumenical Movement for Human Rights) MTP Movimiento Todos por la Patria (Movement All for the Country) NN Nacht und Nabel (Night and Fog) OAS Organization of American States PRT Partido Revolucionario de los Trabajadores (Revolutionary Workers' Party) SERPAJ Servicio Paz y Justicia (Peace and Justice Service) SIDE Secretaría de Informaciones del Estado (State Intelligence Agency) UFER Mouvement International Pour l'Union Fraternelle Entre les Races et les Peuples (International Movement for Fraternal Union among Races and Peoples) ― 1 ― Introduction This book is about the Grandmothers of Plaza de Mayo, a courageous group of women in Argentina 4 of 157 7/12/2006 11:25 PM Searching for Life http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft1199n6w2&chunk.id=0&doc.... who have worked tirelessly to find their disappeared grandchildren and to achieve a measure of justice in their country for more than twenty years. The book is also about the countless human rights violations that the military inflicted on the Argentine people between 1976 and 1983 and how this group of women resisted the worst dictatorship in Argentine history. Under the military regime's reign of terror, even mild dissent was equated with subversion. All "subversives" were seen as enemies of the state, enemies who needed to be eliminated. In addition, the military believed that the children of subversives should not be allowed to grow up with the families that had produced their parents. They needed to be with "decent" and "patriotic" families, who would save them from becoming the next generation of subversives. These are the children that the Grandmothers are searching for—children who were born in captivity in the more than 340 concentration camps where their pregnant mothers were detained and killed after delivering them, as well as children who were kidnapped and disappeared with their parents. I first learned about the Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo in 1986 when, after responding to a fund-raising letter from the Argentine Information Service Center (AISC) in New York, I received a book about them, Botín de Guerra, by Eduardo Nosiglia. I remember looking with amazement at the gray and black cover, which showed a burned baby carriage and what looked like the remains of a building ― 2 ― after an explosion. I wondered what the book was about. I was shocked by what I read. I had known for many years about the repression in Argentina, and I knew that if I had been living there during the military regime I might have disappeared myself. During the years of the dictatorship, every time I went to Argentina I had to go to the federal police to renew my passport (when Argentine citizens living abroad entered the country, their passports automatically expired). These visits to the police always made me nervous—and for good reason. In similar situations, Argentine friends of mine had been held and interrogated, sometimes for hours; and a scientist whom I had met while working at MIT, Antonio Missetich, had disappeared after returning to Argentina. I knew about the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo who marched every Thursday at 3:30 P.M. and about the moral leadership they had provided for so many years both during and after the dictatorship, but I had been unaware of the existence of the Grandmothers. It was hard to believe that during the "dirty war" (as the military themselves called the repression) children had become targets, that newborn babies were given away to families who were part of the repressive regime, and that hundreds of children were growing up with false histories and identities. When AISC called to ask if I would accompany two Grandmothers during their visit to the Boston area, I was delighted to do so. María Isabel Chorobik de Mariani, known as "Chicha" to her friends, and Nélida Gómez de Navajas, the president and the treasurer of the Association, were in the United States for a tour sponsored by Amnesty International that included visits to colleges, universities, churches, and human rights organizations. As I translated their stories for English-speaking audiences, I began to realize the multilayered nature of their work and the complexities of their task. I was very moved to learn that some of the found children had long been suspicious about their origins and that after their initial shock about the truth they rapidly integrated themselves into their legitimate families. I heard about the arguments over the restitution of the children: Would the restitution constitute a second trauma? Would it not be better to leave the children with the people they knew as parents, regardless of the role of those "parents" during the repression? And I heard about the delays of the judicial system that enabled the children to be taken abroad so that their kidnappers could escape justice. I understood the urgency of the Grandmothers' work. Each day that went by was one more day in which the ― 3 ― children were growing up with lies and without their histories, deepening the fraudulent socialization to which they were subjected. As I heard about the many facets of the Grandmothers' work, I was intrigued by the richness of their stories and decided that I wanted to learn more about them. After that visit, every time I went to Buenos Aires to see family and friends I visited the Grandmothers' office. Back in the States I kept in touch by reading their newsletter and occasional news updates. My own work on reproductive technologies had led me to consider issues of identity and personal history and to take part in a larger discussion in the feminist community about the rights of children, identity, and the various definitions of what constitutes a family; I saw many points of connection with their work. 5 of 157 7/12/2006 11:25 PM Searching for Life http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft1199n6w2&chunk.id=0&doc.... I decided to tell the Grandmothers' story because I wanted to pass on to others what I had been learning from them. In spite of the pain and terror that had been part of their lives, these women radiated an irresistible and contagious positive energy. Their inspiring courage in the face of danger challenged my own stereotypes about women and aging. In 1993, during a sabbatical from my teaching responsibilities and in the spirit of "bearing witness," I wrote to the Grandmothers about doing a book on them. I explained that I wanted the opportunity to present their work to the English-speaking public. The reply was swift and positive. Yes, they would give me the names and addresses of grandmothers who identified themselves as members of the group and any other information that would be useful to the project. I sent a detailed description of the project to twenty women: three declined to be interviewed, but later another three joined in. Each of the twenty Grandmothers I interviewed expressed their desire to go on record with their comments rather than be anonymous. Most of the interviews took place at the Grandmothers' office in Buenos Aires, in a neighborhood close to the Jewish business section of town. The office stands in front a huge abandoned market, a ghost building. The neighborhood is also known for having once been home to the legendary Carlos Gardel, Argentina's most famous singer. Going up to the fourth floor in the elevator—an elaborate and sinister-looking wrought-iron cage built in the beginning of the century—was an unsettling experience. I often felt a knot in my stomach as I anticipated the dark hall outside the office and then, once the office door opened, the big display with pictures of hundreds of disappeared children and their parents. Posters, international awards, paintings, and photographs on the themes of children and human rights made the mission of the group ― 4 ― immediately clear. The Grandmothers' office is a vibrant place: the telephone is constantly ringing, conversations are animated, and visitors from other parts of the country are common. Relatives of the disappeared children stop to inquire about the status of the searches. I had the privilege of attending six of the weekly planning meetings of the Association, at which active members discuss the latest news about each case and scrutinize the political developments on the national scene that may affect their work. The interviews lasted from one and a half to three hours. I collected demographic information for each Grandmother regarding her age, family situation, class background, and the events that led her to become involved in the group. An interview guide helped start the conversation. In most cases, after one or two leading questions, the guide was put aside and I simply listened to what they wanted to tell me. The interviews were audiotaped and transcribed either by me, by people suggested by the Grandmothers, or by trusted friends and supporters of the human rights movement. Unless otherwise noted, all translations from Spanish are mine. Though I have usually quoted the interviews verbatim, in some cases I condensed the accounts slightly. I also interviewed other people related to the Grandmothers' work: relatives, psychologists, lawyers, the director of the National Genetic Data Bank, forensic anthropologists, human rights activists, and three of the found children. In December 1993 and again in 1994 I attended the end-of-the-year party held at the Grandmothers' office. I was touched to see some of the found children (now teenagers or young adults) with their legitimate families, chatting with their friends and totally at ease with all who were present. The pride and pleasure of the Grandmothers in being with them was obvious. Since most of the Grandmothers have not yet been able to identify their grandchildren, those who have been found are very special to them. The presence of these children reminds them of their successes, reassures them that their work is not a hopeless dream, and gives them confidence that other children will also be found. The youngsters seemed very much aware of that role as they moved among the various Grandmothers, asking about their work and their families, reflecting the intimate knowledge and bonds that exist among them. During a trip to Argentina in October-November 1996, my last visit before finishing this book, the unexpected happened. Within forty-eight hours of my arrival my sister informed me that a relative, Reina Waisberg, wanted to talk with me. I had met Reina briefly in my youth (one ― 5 ― of her sisters is married to my only living uncle). Over the telephone, Reina said that she had heard about the book I was writing through her work with the Grandmothers' Association. When we met she told me about the disappearances in 1976 of her son Ricardo and his companion, Valeria Belaustegui Herrera, two months pregnant at the time. My family was stunned to learn of Reina's activism; they knew about the disappearance of her son but did not know that his companion was pregnant when she 6 of 157 7/12/2006 11:25 PM Searching for Life http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft1199n6w2&chunk.id=0&doc.... disappeared and that Reina was looking for her grandchild. When I mentioned my connection to Reina to one of the Grandmothers, however, she was not surprised, commenting, "That is why we say that there is no family that has not been touched by what happened here, one way or the other." It was a phrase I had heard several times since I started working on the book, but this time it hit home. Visiting with Reina and her granddaughter Tania (who was fifteen months old when her parents disappeared) was one of the highlights of my trip, and I was particularly happy when they agreed to be interviewed. It brought home how deeply entrenched in Argentina is the conspiracy of silence to which the Grandmothers so often allude, and I felt more determined than ever to help spread the word about the crimes of the dictatorship and the resistance of the Grandmothers. As I started to work on the book memories of my own childhood reawakened. During the 1940s one of my mother's sisters, Matilde Cordovero, who was living in France, had vanished. From half-heard telephone conversations between my mother and her siblings, I gathered that she had been sent to a concentration camp. We never heard anything else about her. I decided to start my own search for information about her fate. Thanks to the work of Serge Klarsfeld on the deportation of Jews in France, I learned that Matilde had been taken to Auschwitz on March 7, 1944, in a convoy with 1,501 other people and that she had perished there. When I told this to my aunt Daisy, her only surviving sister, she thanked me for giving her the "good news," as she called it. While I had never personally met my aunt, her presence had lingered in the family and there was an inexplicable sense of relief as we finally learned what had happened to her. This experience reinforced my belief in the healing potential of the work of the Grandmothers and the need to establish the truth regarding the fate of their children and grandchildren. Because kidnapping children and changing their identities are not crimes covered by the amnesty laws and pardons given by the constitu- ― 6 ― tional governments that followed the dictatorship, the work of the Grandmothers has unique significance. The Grandmothers want the past to be remembered and speak often about the importance of collective memory. However, their focus is on the future. They believe that for a true national reconciliation to take place, those guilty of atrocities must admit their crimes and accept punishment. Only then will Argentine society have a chance to become fertile ground on which a true democracy may flourish. I join in their belief and I hope that this book will, in some small measure, contribute to their success by increasing the public support and understanding of their work. ― 7 ― One— Not Just One More Coup First we will kill all the subversives; then we will kill their collaborators; then . . . their sympathizers, then . . . those who remain indifferent; and finally we will kill the timid. General lbérico Saint-Jean, governor of Buenos Aires (1977) Here I can do with you whatever I want because I am the lord of life and death. Colonel Roberto Roualdes, First Command, Army Corps On October 23, 1975, at the Eleventh Conference of Latin American Armies in Montevideo, Uruguay, journalists asked Lieutenant General Jorge Rafael Videla, commander in chief of the Argentine military forces, about the fight against subversion. "In order to guarantee the security of the state," General Videla replied, "all the necessary people will die." And when asked to define a subversive, he answered, "Anyone who opposes the Argentine way of life."[1] Five months later, on March 24, 1976—for the sixth time since 1930—the military seized power in Argentina. Lieutenant General Videla, Admiral Emilio Eduardo Massera, and Brigadier General Orlando Ramón Agosti toppled the constitutional government of María Estela (Isabel) Martínez de Perón and 7 of 157 7/12/2006 11:25 PM Searching for Life http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft1199n6w2&chunk.id=0&doc.... proclaimed themselves the new rulers of the country, with General Videla as the new president. This was not just one more coup; the bloodiest and most shameful period in Argentine history was about to begin, during which Argentina became infamous for the atrocities of its government and its striking similarities with the Nazi regime. This period brought the word desaparecido (disappeared) into common parlance, forever associating it with the mere mention of Argentina. As a chilling preview of what was to come, Bernardo Alberte, a prominent Peronista leader, was visited in the early hours of the day of the coup by a joint army-federal police unit. As his terrorized family watched, he was thrown out of his sixth- ― 8 ― floor apartment window. With this, the first of many acts of terror, the new government took hold.[2] General chaos and political instability under the government of Isabel Perón had prepared the ground for the takeover. Assassinations, inflation, and deep divisions within the political parties made the coup seem inevitable to large segments of society.[3] A carefully orchestrated campaign by conservative segments of the media, the support of the Argentine landowners and industrialists, and pressure from international financial circles created an image of the generals as reasonable and honest men willing to shoulder the heavy burden of "saving" Argentina. The media presented General Videla and company as "doves" who would prevent the bloodshed that might take place if the other faction, the "hardliners"—like the followers of Augusto Pinochet in Chile—gained power.[4] Prominent intellectuals such as writer Jorge Luis Borges commented, "Now we are governed by gentlemen."[5] The highest levels of the military had approved the coup in September 1975, shortly after Isabel Perón named General Videla commander in chief of the army; it was to be staged within six months. As the details were planned, the military consulted on economic matters with a member of the landowning Argentine oligarchy—José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz, future finance minister—and on cultural matters with Ricardo Pedro Bruera, future minister of education and culture. They would be among the few civilian members of the new regime.[6] Almost immediately after the coup the military replaced the constitution with the Statute for the Process of National Reorganization (popularly known as El Proceso ) giving themselves the authority to exercise all judicial, legislative, and executive powers. Habeas corpus was undermined, censorship was extended to all spheres of life, and trade unions, political parties, and universities fell under the control of the military. The state of siege that had been imposed by Isabel Perón's government was extended indefinitely, and all constitutional guarantees were suspended; 80 percent of the judges were replaced. The military, presenting itself as the defender of "tradition, family, and property," considered any criticism of its rule as a sign of anti-Argentine, subversive behavior that it needed to crush in order to protect the nation. Again, General Videla put it clearly: "The repression is against a minority which we do not consider Argentine."[7] The "Right of Option," which had allowed prisoners at the disposal of the president to choose between jail and exile, was immediately abolished. A host of newly promulgated decrees and laws both increased the ― 9 ― powers of the police and the military and introduced the death penalty for political crimes. Taking over all branches of government, the junta launched one of the Western Hemisphere's most brutal campaigns of repression. Four juntas ruled the country for almost eight years. Only after the debacle of the Malvinas/Falklands war was democracy restored with the election in 1983 of Raúl Alfonsín.[8] Background to the Coup After the military toppled the government of Juan Domingo Perón in 1955, Argentina's economic, social, and political problems continued to grow unabated. Perón and his enormously popular wife, Evita, had instituted extensive social reforms on behalf of the poor and ignited their hopes and their imagination, thus raising their self-esteem and expectations. After his fall, Perón was still very popular among workers who had benefited from his programs and who would not readily accept the rule of his opponents. Although military and civilian administrations succeeded each other, they were unable to stop the country's increasing unemployment, inflation, sociopolitical divisions, and institutional decay. When General Juan Carlos Onganía took power in June 1966, the coup was heralded as a "new beginning." Presenting himself as a friend of the working class, Onganía launched the idea of a "Peronismo without Perón" to gain the support of workers. However, it quickly became clear that 8 of 157 7/12/2006 11:25 PM Searching for Life http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft1199n6w2&chunk.id=0&doc.... Onganía's goal was to manipulate the labor unions and quell their resistance. He installed a military regime and created an autocracy: changes in society would come from above. He banned all political parties and activities, intervened in the national universities, sent the military to repress workers' protests, and announced his intention to remain in power indefinitely.[9] In May 1969 the city of Córdoba erupted in what became known as El Cordobazo, one of the largest popular protests of that period. Led by university students and automobile workers, it presaged the downfall of the Onganía regime. By 1970 two guerrilla groups appeared on the scene: the Montoneros, which identified with left-wing Peronismo, and the People's Revolutionary Army (ERP), the armed branch of the Revolutionary Workers' Party (PRT). The Montoneros kidnapped and subsequently executed former president Pedro Eugenio Aramburu, one of the leaders of the coup against Perón in 1955.[10] At the same time, clandestine right-wing organizations emerged; they kidnapped students ― 10 ― and union militants, who vanished without a trace. In early 1971, one such "disappearance" was occurring every eighteen days. In 1970, after four years in power, Onganía was overthrown. His successor, General Roberto M. Livingston, lasted only nine months before being replaced by yet another general, Alejandro Lanusse. Lanusse promised elections and tried to isolate the extremists, allowing the labor unions to assume leadership on wage issues. His most important conciliatory gesture—lifting the eighteen-year ban on Peronismo—eventually led to the return of Perón to Argentina in 1973.[11] Perón's homecoming was marked by violence: at the Ezeiza International Airport where his plane was to land, right-wing forces attacked the left-wing factions of the Peronista movement, leaving scores of people wounded or dead. Dissociating himself from the left-wing groups within Peronismo, Perón created alliances with the most reactionary groups and in October 1973 he began his third term as president. Seventy-eight years old and in ill health, he died before his first year in office ended; he was succeeded by his wife, Isabel Perón, who had been his running mate. During Isabel Perón's government, right-wing death squads launched a campaign of terror against workers, students, and anyone vaguely suspected of leftist tendencies. Declaring a state of siege in November 1974, she gave carte blanche to the military, thus authorizing a bloody campaign to squelch guerrilla activities in Tucumán province. Organized by José López Rega, who was Isabel Perón's right-hand man and minister of social welfare, the sinister Argentine Anti-communist Alliance (or Triple A, as it was commonly called) murdered some seventy of its opponents in the latter half of 1974; by early 1975 the alliance was eliminating leftists at the rate of fifty per week.[12] Among those assassinated were prominent figures like exiled General Carlos Prats, commander in chief of the Chilean army during Salvador Allende's presidency, and his wife, who were killed by a car bomb; lawyer and academician Silvio Frondizi, brother of former president Arturo Frondizi, was kidnapped in midday in the center of Buenos Aires and gunned down in the outskirts of the capital.[13] When the first junta came to power in 1976, the guerrilla groups in Argentina had been all but wiped out. General Videla himself had declared in January 1976 that the guerrilla groups were no longer a danger. The total insurgent forces probably did not amount to more than 2,000 people, of whom perhaps only 20 percent were armed, while the modern and powerful armed forces numbered about 200,000.[14] The threat of left-wing terrorism was an excuse to take ― 11 ― complete control and impose the junta's own brand of state terrorism. The military leaders intended to modify, by any means necessary, the social, political, economic, and cultural structure of the country and to establish themselves as the final unchallenged authority.[15] The Doctrine of National Security The Doctrine of National Security, the political cornerstone of the regime, was not a new idea. Under the right-wing rule of General Onganía, the army was already teaching its soldiers that the real threat to Argentina came from within, from "subversives" who sought to destroy the traditional values of Argentine society. Who were these subversives? Anyone who did not adhere to the Christian and military virtues that were supposed to save the world from communism. Like many other military men in Argentina, Onganía was heavily influenced by U.S. counterinsurgency courses, which had helped spread this doctrine throughout Latin America; indeed, he called it the "West Point Doctrine" in honor of the institution that had given birth to its central 9 of 157 7/12/2006 11:25 PM Searching for Life http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft1199n6w2&chunk.id=0&doc.... tenets. Under the 1947 Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance, in 1951 the U.S. Defense Department set up its Military Assistance Program to arm and train Latin American armies. The Latin American officers were trained at centers in the United States such as the Inter-American Defense College at Washington's Fort McNair. U.S. Defense Secretary Robert S. McNamara praised the programs: "These students are hand-picked by their countries to become instructors when they return home. They are the coming leaders, the men who will have the know-how and impart it to their forces." In 1969, after a tour of Latin America on President Nixon's behalf, Nelson Rockefeller announced that the military was "the essential force of constructive social change."[16] In Argentina, French officers who had participated in Vietnam and Algeria were instrumental in training the army. General Ramón Juan Camps, the chief of police of the Buenos Aires province from 1976 to 1979, admired the French approach toward repression; he considered it more effective and complete than the American approach, which relied almost exclusively on sheer force and a militaristic perspective. He prided himself on synthesizing both perspectives and, in the process, creating Argentina's unique brand of repression.[17] The Doctrine of National Security was a loose set of concepts, some contradictory and poorly delineated; its cohesive power rested in its defi- ― 12 ― nition of "the enemy" as communism. A remnant of the cold war, it was designed to protect the economic hegemony of the United States in Latin America. The fear of "another Cuba" drove the United States to fund and train the Latin American armies to obliterate the "menace" of Marxism.[18] The doctrine held that a "third world war" was being waged between the "free world" and communism, a war in which Argentina was a key battleground. As General Luciano Benjamín Menéndez, commander of the Third Army Corps in Córdoba, explained: "On one side were the subversives that wanted to destroy the national state to convert it into a communist state, a satellite in the red orbit, and on the other side, us, the legal forces, which by [the authority of] two decrees of the then-constitutional powers participated in that struggle."[19] On this account, the internal enemy was more dangerous than enemies from abroad because it threatened the fundamental Western and Christian values of Argentine society. National boundaries became subordinated to "ideological frontiers": the armed forces were to protect the country's ideological purity, not just its geographical borders. The state began to intervene in other countries' internal affairs and joined the Southern Cone's military regimes in fighting "subversion." At the same time, the repressive model was exported to other countries—particularly to Central America, where the Argentine military took an active role in training government forces in Nicaragua, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras.[20] To coordinate military activities among neighboring countries, General Roberto Viola, a member of the second junta and Argentina's president, proposed the doctrine of Continental Security (Seguridad Continental ), which created a veritable underground network for the repression. It was open season on political refugees from Uruguay, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay, and Brazil.[21] Foreigners were told by the authorities that they would be expelled if their presence in any way "affected national security." Recognizing the danger, the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) issued a worldwide appeal to help resettle the refugees in other countries.[22] In the view of the military, communism's global strategy required that the state respond with a global approach. It followed that the militarization of Argentine society was needed to fight the Marxist "menace." That is how the junta justified launching an undeclared war—a "dirty war," as they called it—against its own people. The inevitability of a third world war was carefully drilled into the minds of the men who ran the day-to-day operations needed to keep the repressive regime in power. Writing of ― 13 ― his experiences in the clandestine detention camp where he was held prisoner, Jacobo Timerman, editor of La Opinión, recalls weekly courses given by the army on such a war. Timerman reports that "attendance was obligatory for the entire staff of torturers, interrogators, and kidnappers."[23] The message conveyed by this "academy" was simple: Communism needed to be stopped, and Nazi tactics and methods were the only effective tools for fighting subversion. After the classes, Timerman's guards would discuss their lessons with him while he took the opportunity to correct them about their misconceptions regarding Zionism. Trade union workers were among the main targets of the repression. Argentina's labor movement was the backbone of the Peronista Party, and the workers' demands for social reform and economic 10 of 157 7/12/2006 11:25 PM