Sergio Rossi SDG 14: Life Below Water A Machine-Generated Overview of Recent Literature SDG 14: Life Below Water Sergio Rossi SDG 14: Life Below Water A Machine-Generated Overview of Recent Literature Sergio Rossi University of Salento Lecce, Italy ISBN 978-3-031-19466-5 ISBN 978-3-031-19467-2 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-19467-2 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. 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This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Introduction In recent years it has been stressed that the problems created by population growth and climate change are so big and of such complexity that we do not have the capacity to address them. We do not react to a cascade of situations that are driving us to absolute collapse for two reasons: (1) The mental short-termism that is inherent in any animal, including the human being, (2) the synergy of factors that act together, not being able to isolate each other to give partial solutions. In this puzzle, the oceans, after decades of being ignored, seem to take on rele- vance. The UN launched a plan to draw attention to the role of that 70% mass of water that covers the surface of our planet, finally coming to the conclusion that part of the solution lies in understanding, managing and restoring the oceans. Biodi- versity, complexity, and functionality take on relevance in one of the Sustainable Development Goals that aims to improve our oceans. Life Below Water (SDG 14) is one of the goals to be achieved in this desperate decade, in which we are going to have to race to try to save civilization in its many facets. A Decade of the Oceans has been instituted that aims to channel the greatest possible number of initiatives to substantially improve the health of marine habitats, as well as try to mitigate the impact on human communities. Fisheries, pollution, and urban expansion are some direct issues that are stressing the oceans, but we may have direct (local and regional) solutions to solve them in many cases. However, among all the challenges we face, the most global and complex one to mitigate is climate change. In the oceans, climate change is especially evident, since 93% of the heat absorbed by the earth is concentrated in the water masses that are warming rapidly. Acidification, which is the sister of warming in water masses due to the increase in CO that penetrates and reacts to create slightly less 2 alkaline water, is the other large-scale problem that has a global impact and cannot be controlled locally. Marine organisms suffer these consequences, having to adapt, migrate or disappear. We have created a transition phase to a new unknown state in which some species, habitats and even biomes will prevail while others languish or simply disappear. Understanding, managing and repairing our actions in the oceans has become a very urgent task to solve the problem and understand how long this transition between systems will last. v vi Introduction This book focuses, in seven chapters, on the perspectives and solutions that different research groups offer to try to address problems related to SDG 14: Life Below Water. The different objectives developed in SDG 14 are treated indepen- dently, with an attempt to give a global vision of the issues. The mechanism used to select the book’s content was through an Artificial Intelligence program, choosing articles related to the topics by means of keywords. The program selected those arti- cles, and those that were not related to the topic or did not focus on SDG 14 were discarded. Obviously, the selection was partial and the entire subject is not covered, but the final product gives a very solid idea of how to orient ourselves to delve deeper into the topic of SDG 14 using published chapters and articles. The AI program itself selected the text of these contributions to show the progress in different topics related to SDG 14. This mode of operation will allow specialists (and non-specialists) to collect useful information for their specific research purposes in a short period of time. At a time when information is essential in order to move quickly by providing concrete answers to complex problems, this type of approach will become essential for researchers, especially for a subject as vast as SDG 14. Sergio Rossi Contents 1 A Comprehensive Overview of SDG 14: Life Below Water_Final .... 1 1.1 Biogeochemical Cycles and Microbial Loop: Pollution and the Effects of Climate Change ............................ 1 1.1.1 Biogeochemical, Eutrophication, Ocean Circulation ....... 1 1.1.2 Phytoplankton, Nutrients, Carbon Cycle, Pollution, Isotopes, Ocean Acidification .......................... 26 References ..................................................... 53 2 Marine Solid Pollution—From Macroplastics to Nanoplastics ...... 63 2.1 Marine Pollution ........................................... 63 2.1.1 Microplastics ........................................ 63 References ..................................................... 101 3 Ocean Acidification and Sea Warming-Toward a Better Comprehension of Its Consequences ............................. 111 3.1 Ocean Acidification and Sea Warming ......................... 111 3.1.1 Ocean Acidification .................................. 111 3.1.2 Sea Level, Sea Surface Temperature .................... 142 References ..................................................... 190 4 Fishing and Overfishing-Sustainable Harvest of the Sea ............ 207 4.1 Fishing ................................................... 207 4.1.1 Fisheries, Fish Stock ................................. 207 4.1.2 Small-Scale Fisheries, Illegal Fishing, Governance ........ 263 References ..................................................... 308 5 Reinventing Marine Exploitaition—New Mariculture, Energy and Marine Products Approach ................................. 327 5.1 Marine Exploitation ........................................ 327 5.1.1 Aquaculture ......................................... 327 5.1.2 Maritime Transport, Marine Technology ................. 379 References ..................................................... 418 vii viii Contents 6 Conservation and Restoration-Large Scale Regeneration Plans ..... 431 6.1 Conservation and Restoration ................................ 431 6.1.1 Restoration, Conservation ............................. 431 6.1.2 Tourism, Marine Protected Area ........................ 459 References ..................................................... 516 7 Science Monitoring and Scientific Outreach ....................... 535 7.1 Science Monitoring ......................................... 535 7.1.1 Monitoring .......................................... 535 7.1.2 Governance ......................................... 565 References ..................................................... 587 Chapter 1 A Comprehensive Overview of SDG 14: Life Below Water_Final 1.1 Biogeochemical Cycles and Microbial Loop: Pollution and the Effects of Climate Change Machine generated keywords: acidification, pacific, abundance, ocean acidification, estuarine, sea, plankton, Deepsea, north, group, western, variation, Atlantic, arctic, circulation. 1.1.1 Biogeochemical, Eutrophication, Ocean Circulation Machine generated keywords: estuarine, arctic, biogeochemistry, storm, dust, assessment, metal, ipcc, baltic, baltic sea, sea, zinc, pacific, north sea, puget. Simulation of Annual Biogeochemical Cycles of Nutrient Balance, Phytoplankton Bloom(s), and DO in Puget Sound Using an Unstructured Grid Model https://doi.org/10.1007/s10236-012-0562-4 Abstract-Summary Results based on 2006 data show that phytoplankton growth and die-off, succession between two species of algae, nutrient dynamics, and dissolved oxygen in Puget Sound are strongly tied to seasonal variation of temperature, solar radiation, and the annual exchange and flushing induced by upwelled Pacific Ocean waters. Concentrations in the mixed outflow surface layer occupying approximately 5– 20 m of the upper water column show strong effects of eutrophication from natural and anthropogenic sources, spring and summer algae blooms, accompanied by depleted nutrients but high dissolved oxygen levels. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 1 S. Rossi, SDG 14: Life Below Water, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-19467-2_1 2 1 AComprehensiveOverviewofSDG14:LifeBelowWater_Final The bottom layer reflects dissolved oxygen and nutrient concentrations of upwelled Pacific Ocean water modulated by mixing with biologically active surface outflow in the Strait of Juan de Fuca prior to entering Puget Sound over the Admiralty Inlet. The effect of reflux mixing at the Admiralty Inlet sill resulting in lower nutrient and higher dissolved oxygen levels in bottom waters of Puget Sound than the incoming upwelled Pacific Ocean water is reproduced. Introduction A model study of the Salish Sea was conducted with a focus on the Puget Sound region in an effort to improve our understanding of the annual biogeochemical cycles of nutrient loading and consumption by algal growth and the effects of seasonal variations on primary productivity and dissolved oxygen (DO). Large quantities of nutrient loads from the Pacific Ocean also enter the Salish Sea through the Strait of Juan de Fuca and enter Puget Sound through tidal exchange flow over the Admiralty Inlet [1]. Based on review of historic current meter records, Ebbesmeyer and Barnes [2] developed a conceptual model of Puget Sound that describes circulation in the main basin of Puget Sound as that in a fjord with deep sills (landward sill zone at Tacoma Narrows and a seaward sill zone at Admiralty Inlet) defining a large basin, outflow through the surface layers, and inflow at depth. We present the first 3-D water quality model of the entire Salish Sea with a focus on the Puget Sound region. Model description and configuration The biogeochemical model selected for use with the FVCOM solution was CE- QUAL-ICM, a 3-D, time variable, integrated-compartment model, developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for simulating water quality [3]. The use of the carbon cycle as the basis for eutrophication calculations, the ability to include sediment diagenesis, and the use of a finite volume approach were important considerations in selection of CE-QUAL-ICM for the Salish Sea model development with FVCOM. In CE-QUAL-ICM, all organic matter entering the model domain from the open boundaries and from point sources is tracked directly in the form of dissolved or particulate organic carbon, organic nitrogen, and organic phosphorous. Linkage of FVCOM hydrodynamic solution with CE-QUAL-ICM was accom- plished through the development of a modified code herein referred to as the Unstructured Biological Model (UBM) in which the transport calculations are conducted through the FVCOM framework and biogeochemical calculations are conducted using CE-QUAL-ICM kinetics over the same finite volume mesh, as used in hydrodynamic calculations using a triangular elements.