SCIENCE IN THE MAKING Volume 4: 1950-1998 SCIE NC E IN THE M A KING SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENT AS CHRONICLED BY HISTORIC PAPERS IN THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE- WITH COMMENTARIES AND ILLUSTRATIONS Volume 4: 1950-1998 EDITED BY E. A. DAVIS "¥10~&1 1Fl,( . ;.... (") < ....., . . ,_ c., ~ /::: <)'0 oiltJded \1 Dedicated to Christine UK Taylor & Francis Books Ltd., 11 New Fetter Lane, London, EC4P 4EE USA Taylor & Francis Inc., 1900 Frost Road, Suite 101, Bristol, PA 19007 Copyright© Taylor & Francis Books Ltd. 1999 Taylor & Francis is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 0 7484 07677 Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data are available Typeset by Keyword Typesetting Services Ltd Printed in Great Britain by Biddies Ltd., Guildford and King's Lynn Contents Introduction and Acknowledgements vii Part One 1950-1959 1 Part Two 1960-1969 145 Part Three 1970-1979 307 Part Four 1980-1989 431 Part Five 1990-1998 481 Introduction and Acknowledgements In contrast to Volumes 1, 2 and 3 of this series, in which papers were grouped by topic or sections devoted to the work of individual scientists, the order of articles in this final Volume is strictly chronological, each Part covering a decade. It has proved to be far more difficult than was the case for the pre- vious Volumes to select classic papers for the period 1950 to the present day. Quite simply this is because insufficient time has elapsed to allow history to be the judge as to which of the several thousand papers published in the Philosophical Magazine during this period will ulti- mately stand out as being of ground-breaking significance. Inevitably the choice has been subjective and personal, but it is hoped that the selection is sufficiently broad to ensure the inclusion of at least some papers that will be recognized as meritorious with the passage of time. Most of the scientists whose papers are included are still alive and I have benefited from the suggestions of many of the authors with respect to the short commentaries on the papers which appear at the beginning of each Part. For help in compiling this Volume, I am particularly indebted to Phil Anderson, Mick Brown, Paul Butcher, Munawar Chaudhri, David Cherns, David Cockayne, Alan Cottrell, Tom Faber, Mike Finnis, John Forty, Volker Heine, Peter Hirsch, Archie Howie, Alan Lidiard, Jack Mitchell, Frank Nabarro, Brian Pippard, David Shoenberg, Ray Smallman, Vasek Vitek, Denis Weaire, Mike Whelan and Abe Yoffe. Finally I would like to thank the publishers for their patience in wait- ing for this Volume to be completed, Tony Moore and Jackie Day for help with its production, and Stephanie Brooks for continuous secretarial help. EDWARD A. DAVIS Department of Physics and Astronomy University of Leicester Part One 1950-1959