b, ST ( Slow-twitch muscle fibers PART1 , T, Time to peak performance s.rtJ. . TF,, Maximum training weighi .$ ' .,r r ,$;! ,;<-- J,. \?< 1i.I 9 ' '. T V, Maximal velocity attained when the magnitude of a motor task 1 ' ti*'+ ; . i >, : ~ :gk ,*1i [ i;J ' parameter is fixed , 1, ,; 1 q ,I: , BASIS OF ST2,R E.a,*.N GT. JH ' I r CONDITIONING1 ;- &,::,; . ( , / > > s ' L; -, I - 5 , ' ' 1 a .I-,* ' A7,*,, , > , < < ,i;, I, . The primary goal of this book is to provide readers with practical recom- mendations, or a prescription, for training athletes. Practical advice, how- ever, cannot be given without first providing descriptions of what should be trained and why some methods are better than others. Part 1 of the book describes theory, while Part 2 covers methods of strength training. The first part, which is entirely descriptive, develops several concepts in a natural, sequential order. Chapter 1 is introductory and provides an overview of the principles of training theory: It describes the peculiarities of adaptation to a physical load; discusses two prevailing theories of training-the supercompensation theory and the fitness-fatigue theory- both of which are widely and enthusiastically embraced as effective methods in spite of their simplicity; and spells out the nomenclature of training effects. Although the concepts and terminology introduced in this ch+pter are used throughout the book, the chapter is self-contained and pEsumes that the reader has no prior scientific knowledge. Chapters 2 and 3 address the factors that determine muscle strength. It is assumed that readers have some knowledge of exercise physiology and sport biomechanics, or at least are acquainted with basic muscle physiol- ogy. Readers who are not familiar with this material, however, should not be discouraged from reading the book; the main concepts are explained in a format intelligible for a reader with a minimal background in exercise and sport science. Readers who do have trouble understanding chapters 2 and 3 need not read them in one sitting, but can return to them later while reading the balance of the book. Chapter 2 lays the foundation for the very notion of muscular strength, classifying and explaining the evidence collected by measuring muscle force. It introduces the concept of maximal muscular performance, as well as two main relationships-parametric and nonparametric-and defines the notion of muscular strength. It then follows with a detailed discussion 1 2 Science and Practice of Strmgth Paining C H A P T E R 1 of various factors involved in motor tasks, such as resistance, the time available for force development, movement velocity., movement direc- tion, and body posture. The integrating idea for these diverse issues is rather simple and straightforward: exercise specificity. For training to be effective, the training exercises should be similar to the main sport adiv- ity, and the exercise similarity should be eqpblished according to the cri- teria discussed in this chapter. Chapter 3 addresses the issue of muscle strength from another stand- point: that of the performer rather than the motor task. Some people pos- sess greater strength than others. Why? What properties do elite athIetes have that allow them to be exceptional? The internal factors determining muscle strength are latent. Hence, they can be identified only by using a physiological approach. If we are able to idenhfy them, we open the road to goal-directed training of these primary factors, so the exercises and methods addressed here will center on specific targets rather than on strength in general. This chapter is based mainly on facts and theories originated by exercise physiologists. Two main groups of internal factors are discussed: muscular and neural. Among the muscular factors, pri- mary attention is given to the muscle dimension and its counterpart, body weight. Other factors, including nutrition and hormonal status, are briefly highlighted, too. The neural mechanisms, such as intra- and inter- muscular coordination, are reviewed in the later sections. Chapter 3 is essential for understanding training methods. Basic Concepts'o f Training Theory Strength conditioning theory is part of a broader field of knowledge, the science of training athletes, also termed training science or theory of sport training. Training science courses cover the principal components of ath- lete preparation, including conditioning (not only for strength but also for speed, endurance, flexibility, and other motor abilities), sport technique learning, and periodization. Throughout this book, the concepts and approaches developed within the framework of training science are extensively utilized. This chapter introduces you to the issues of training in general. The ideas and terminology you encounter here will be used in the lmm&nder 06 the>book. , ..- :.,, 2 .7r ..,-.,.T.- 8, . .. -,-.-.;7->)~7 -,'"-t I - Sulenn mui Practice of Skngth Trai~tSpzg Basic Concepts of Training Theory 5 Adaptation as a Main Law of Training Detraining Retaining Stimulating . load - ..- load .. - load : 4- 7 If a training routine is planned and executed correctly, the result of sys- tematic exercise is improvement of the athlete's physical fitness, particu- I larly strength, as the body adapts to physical load. In a broad sense, the (I) word adaptation means the adjustment ofpn organism to its environment. K -+ If the environment changes, the organism changes to better survive in G these new conditions. In biology, adaptation is considered one of the main .8- features of living species. (>I) E Exercise or regular physical work is a very powerful stimulus for adap- i Beginners tation. The major objective in training is to induce specific adaptations in order to improve sport performance results. This requires adherence to a etraining Retaining i Stimulating i carefully planned and executed training program. From the practical load i load - .- load t 4 b point of view, the following four features of the adaptation process Training load assume primary importance for sport training: 1. The stimulus magnitude (overload) Figure 1.1 Dependence between training load (detraining, retaining, stimulat- 2. Accommodation ing) and level of physical fitness. Rectangles indicate the neutral zones (retaining 3. Specificity load) corresponding to small fluctuations in the training load at which the level 4. Individualization of fitness is basically not changed. Note the "stepladder" effect showing a change in the adaptation curve with a change in the training stimulus. A training load that leads to the detraining of qualified athletes may be extremely high for Overload beginners. To bring about positive changes in an athlete's state, an exercise overload must be applied. The training adaptation takes place only if the magni- tude of the training load is above the habitual level. During the training Overload process, there are two ways to induce the adaptation. One is to increase the training load (intensity, volume) while continuing to employ the same Identical triplets possessed equal levels of strength; each was able to drill, for example, endurance running. The other is to change the drill, provided that the exercise is new and the athlete is not accustomed to it. g lift a 57.5-kg barbell one time. They began to exercise with a 50-kg barbell, lifting the barbell in one set until failure five times. After a If an athlete uses a standard exercise with the same training load over a period of time, the athletes adapted to the training routine, their pre- very long time, there will be no additional adaptations and the level of paredness improved, and they were able to lift a 60-kg barbell one physical fitness will not substantially change (Figure 1.1).I f the training time. However, despite continued training, they did not make fur- load is too low, detraining occurs. In elite athletes, many training improve- ther performance gains because they accommodated to the training ments are lost within several weeks, even days, if an athlete stops exercis- program. ing. During the competition period, elite athletes cannot afford complete At this stage, the three athletes made different decisions. Athlete passive rest for more than 3 days in a row (typically only 1o r 2 days). A decided to increase the training load (weight lifted, the number of Training loads can be roughly classified according to their magnitude as repetitions in a set, the number of sets) or change the exercise. The new load was a stimulating load for this athlete and the perfor- stimulating-the magnitude of the training load,is above the neutral mance improved. Athlete B continued to employ the previous rou- level and positive adaptation may take place; tine and the performance results were unchanged (retaining load). retaining-the magnitude is in the neutral zone at which the level of Athlete C decreased the training load and this athlete's strength per- fitness is maintained; and formance declined (detraining load). detraining-the magnitude of the load leads to a decrease in perfor- mance results, in the functional capabilities of the athlete, or both. 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IU ?ya eqy- qya joxa 8elus' vd"' oqsaxAap eq ppalauq !oruq eu81as MaJa Aexra p)d@r~a Ia?as oj qya saaoup 8x .on~d' y o ?Je!uap eq qya icOO yuaa-iotuq eu81a )saa i'% " EUP 4(' dlafnra 1.cq(' qvusjaJ 03 qeluyu8 8pus Mes yrul?ap qo qya ualSyqoyuS 10 Science and Practice of Strength Training Basic Concepts of Training Theory 11 joint angles: The strength gain was low for small joint angles (compare strength gains in angles 130" and 90"). The same held true for barbell Cdculaffng the trader of trafning results squats. In the first group, the strength gain in the trained body posture In the experiment, the following data were recorded (Figure 1.3): was 410 rt 170 N and in qwtting it was 11.5 rt 5.4 kg. In the second group, * the strength in the trained posture increased by 560 230 N; howwer, in spite of such a high gain, the barbell squatperformancei mproved by only - Gain of 7.5 i 4.7 kg. The strength gain in the trairied posture in the second group . perfor- Test Before After mance Result gain Transfer was higher (560 rt 230 N vs. 410 s 170 N), but the improvement in the bar- * bell squats was lower (7.5 4.7 kg vs. 11.5 m 5.4 kg) due to minimal tram- Group 1 (Isometric training at an angle of 70") fer of training results. As performances in different exercises have different modalities (force, ' Force at an * * * time, distance) and are not directly comparable, a dimensionless unit ' angle 70°, N 1310 340 1720 270 410 170 410/340 = 1.2 * should be employed to estimate the transfer of training result. Such a unit Squatting, kg 95.5 i 23 107 21 11.5 i 5.4 11.5/23 = 0.5 0.5/1.2 = 0.42 is a result gain expressed in standard devigtions: Group 2 (Isometric training at an angle of 130") Gain of performance Force at an Result gain = * * * Standard deviation of performance angle 130°, N 2710 618 3270 642 560 230 560/618 = 0.91 * * Squatting, kg 102 28 110 ~2t3 7.5 4.7 7.5/28 = 0.27 0.27/0.91 = 0.30 For instance, if the average performance of a group is 60 k 10 kg (average + standard deviation) and the performance of an athlete is improved as a Note the results: result of training by 15 kg, the athlete's personal gain equals 15/10 or 1.5 standard deviation. For the estimation of transfer, a ratio of the gains in Superior nontrained exercises (exercises B, C, and D) and the trained exercise (exer- Characteristics group Comparison cise A) is employed. The coefficient of the transfer of training is, by defin- ition, the ratio: Gain of performance in trained exercise Second 560 vs. 410 N Result gain in trained exercise First 1.2 vs. 0.91 SD Transfer of training results First 0.42 vs. 0.30 Result gain in nontrained exercise Transfer = G~I$o f performance in nontrained exercise First 11.5 54v s. Result gain in trained exercise I 7.5 * 4.7 kg 6. Both gains are measured in standard deviations. The higher the ratio, the Because of the higher transfer of training results, the method used to greater the transfer of training results. If the transfer is low, the effect of train- train the first group better improved the squatting performance. ing is specific. In the example from Figure 1.3, training effects were more ' specific for the group that performed exercise at the 130" knee-joint angle. Specificity of adaptation increases with the level of sport mastership. The higher an athlete's level of fitness, the more specific the adaptation. The transfer of training gain is lower in good atwetes; for beginners, All people are different. The same exercises or training methods elicit a almost all exercises are useful. It is possible to improve the strength, greater or smaller effect in various athletes. Innumerable attempts to mimic speed, endurance, and flexibility in people with extremely low physical the training routines of famous athletes have proven unsuccessful. Only the fitness through simple calisthenics. The performance of beginning bicy- general ideas underlying noteworthy training programs, not the entire clists can be improved by squatting with a barbell. Elite athletes should training protocol, should be understood and creatively employed. The use more specific exercises and training methods to increase competitive same holds true for average values derived from training practices and sci- preparedness. entific research. Coaches and athletes need to use an average training