Volume 16, 2013 Approved July 29, 2012 ISSN: 2165-1019 www.ala.org/aasl/slr School Librarians as Ambassadors of Inclusive Information Access for Students with Disabilities Mega Subramaniam, University of Maryland, College of Information Studies Rebecca Oxley, University of Maryland, College of Information Studies Christie Kodama, Highland Elementary School, Montgomery County Public Schools, Maryland Abstract Many scholarly studies investigating school library services provided to students with special needs primarily address aspects of collaboration with special education (SPED) teachers in an immersed school environment. Scarcely studied are ways that school library programs (SLPs) empower students in schools serving only students with a specific disability (vision impaired, autism, etc.), the challenges SLPs face in these schools, nor the specialized training made available to these librarians to ensure the delivery of efficient services. We formulated this study to determine: 1) the types of facilities, services, and resources SLPs provide to students with specific disabilities in these SPED schools; 2) the technologies that facilitate physical and intellectual access for these students within the school library; 3) the extent to which federal disability guidelines are implemented in the design and delivery of these SLPs; and 4) the specialized training that enables school librarians to better support students with special needs. Our findings suggest that, if adequate pre-service and in-service training is provided and pertinent support is received from outside and inside of school, school librarians, as ambassadors of accessibility, can and do play a highly influential role in empowering students and staff in SPED schools. Introduction “…my experience…working in public schools as a librarian is that everything is meant for “average” child…I have never met an “average” child, but everything is meant for “average” child” —Dana, School B Aspiring to provide access to high-quality resources that enrich and empower those who seek to expand their knowledge, librarians have often designed and focused services and resources for the average user, assuming that, as a result, the greatest number of users will benefit. However, deeper reflection on the characteristics and identities of the “average” user continue to puzzle all School Librarians as Ambassadors of Inclusive Information Access Volume 16 | ISSN: 2165-1019 library stakeholders. In recent years, librarians and other stakeholders have become increasingly aware of the importance of providing library access to all users inclusively; this consideration will continue to grow in importance in the future (Hawthorne, Denge, and Coombs 1997; Gibson 2006; Jaeger et al. 2011; Mates 2004). More than 54 million people in the United States, or 18.7 percent of the nation’s population, have a disability (Jaeger 2012; Lazar and Jaeger 2011). People being diagnosed with one or more learning disabilities are increasing; it is estimated that 1.5 million people in the U.S. are affected by autism, and one in 110 children is diagnosed with this disability (Autism Speaks 2012). People with special needs vary across a wide range of physical, learning, and emotional disabilities. While some of these disabilities may be grouped under a common label or bear similar characteristics, the specific nature of a physical or cognitive disability may fall anywhere on a wide spectrum, with no “one size fits all” labels or solutions. Additionally, the daily challenges people face may be compounded by complex multiple or composite disabilities (Allen and Hughes-Hassell 2010; Ennis-Cole and Smith 2011). This circumstance further complicates the delivery of resources and services to library patrons, as librarians will need to be knowledgeable and trained to address and meet the needs of these patrons. In the K–12 environment, though individualized education programs (IEPs) are provided to students with specific learning or physical disabilities, these IEPs do not necessarily include resources and services provided by the school library program (SLP) (Blue and Pace 2011). Some common culprits behind the prevalence of this oversight are insufficiencies of: administrative support, professional development, budget, advocacy, leadership, training in technologies, and pedagogical knowledge. Students with special needs in K–12 schools often need the most attention, and require specific resources and services from their school libraries to best accommodate their disabilities to ensure success both in school and throughout their adult lives. The resultant disparate future for underserved students with special needs is disheartening: 21 percent of illiterate American adults have multiple disabilities (IES 2003), and more than 70 percent of this population will go on to be unemployed (von Schrader, Erickson, and Lee 2010). There is, indeed, a vital need for more in-depth research on the role school libraries play in serving students with special needs. In parallel, there is an obvious shortage of research addressing the roles of school librarians and SLPs in special-education schools (Farmer 2009). Definition of Special Education (SPED) According to the National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities, the term “special education” refers to “instruction that is specially designed to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability” (2010). Because each child with a disability is unique, SPED is distinct for each child. The term “disability” can include visual impairment, hearing impairment, speech and/or language impairment, emotional disturbance, cognitive developmental delays including learning disabilities, Autism/Pervasive Development Disorder (PDD), Asperger’s Syndrome, orthopedic impairment, musculoskeletal impairment, and traumatic brain injury (IDEIA 2004). More importantly, this term indicates a spectrum of intensity and conditionality, and/or compound, complex multiple disabilities and variations thereof, including medical fragility. U.S. Federal Guidelines on Disabilities In 1975 the federal government in the U.S. responded to the inherent rights and special needs of 2 School Library Research | www.ala.org/aasl/slr School Librarians as Ambassadors of Inclusive Information Access Volume 16 | ISSN: 2165-1019 children with disabilities by introducing the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (IPAS 2011). This act allocated billions of dollars for individual states to provide a free and appropriate education (FAPE) in the least restrictive environment (LRE) for the unique learning needs of the nation’s school children with disabilities (IPAS 2011). Originally passed as the Education for Handicapped Children Act, the law has been revised a number of times to account for changes in terminology, technology, educational practice, social norms, and other changes related to the education of students with disabilities (Jaeger and Bowman 2005). The latest revision to this law took place in 2004 when IDEA was changed to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA). IDEIA’s impact on school library programs has been well described by Helen R. Adams: “Because of this federal legislation, students meeting the various definitions of ‘disabled’ are educated with their peers instead of being isolated and they have the right to be active users of the library media center” (2009, 54). The physical facilities of a school must accommodate students with disabilities by providing an LRE. These provisions are influenced by a history of national legislation protecting and advocating for persons with disabilities. In 1968 the federal government passed the Architectural Boundaries Act (ABA) mandating that any facilities built with federal funds, such as courthouses, libraries, and schools, be accessible to persons with disabilities. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), passed in 1990 and revised in 2008, prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities and increased access ranges to general public places. Both sets of laws were revisited and incorporated into the new ADA-ABA guidelines (U.S. Access Board 2004), which have been adopted by several presidential administrations to continue enforcement of laws making all public and information spaces accessible to persons with disabilities. For example, public schools must provide learning environments with counters and workspaces accommodating students seated in wheelchairs, facilities that are wheelchair-accessible with elevators or ramps of appropriate gradient, and signs that include Braille. In 1998 the Section 508 amendment to the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 mandated that all methods of telecommunication, including the Internet, should be accessible to persons with disabilities if the entity receives federal funding (Section 508, 1998). Public schools must be 508-compliant by making information and communication accessible through assistive technologies. Framework for Study: Gibson’s Critical Library Services Categories Research on the role of SLPs for students with disabilities in American public schools has addressed concepts of inclusive access to collections, services, and programs, and discussed collaboration between school librarians and SPED teachers (Allen and Hughes-Hassell 2010; Downing 2006; Ennis-Cole and Smith 2011; Jurkowski 2006; Perrault 2011a; Small, Snyder, and Parker 2009). However, there is a dearth of research and literature regarding the roles SLPs play in directly supporting the specific needs of students with disabilities as a population (Murray 2002; Farmer 2009; Perrault 2011a). Lesley S. J. Farmer (2009) has discussed Ava Gibson’s four categories of critical library services (Gibson 2006), observing that the needs of SPED students must be accommodated through the lens of these guidelines if learners are to achieve 21st-century learning skills. Although Gibson’s categories of critical library services are recommended for an academic library, we concur with Farmer that these categories can be adapted for framing services provided in SLPs. These categories of critical library services are: 3 School Library Research | www.ala.org/aasl/slr School Librarians as Ambassadors of Inclusive Information Access Volume 16 | ISSN: 2165-1019 1. Policies and Procedures: compliance with federal laws and regulations, policies within the SLP that ensure accountability, accommodating policies; 2. Access to facilities and equipment: physical and environmental access for students with disabilities to resources, assistive technologies; 3. Specific services: a variety of information formats, collection, modes of instruction; and 4. Staff development: general and needs-specific education and training support from administration (Gibson 2006). Gibson notes that these categories, while distinct, “are not stand-alone categories but are interwoven” (2006, 61). With this idea in mind, we approach and present the literature and research framed within the concepts for each of Gibson’s categories of critical library services. Using Gibson’s framework, we designed our data collection instruments to explore the school librarian’s challenges and solutions in providing these categories of service to students with disabilities within the SPED environment. Policies and Procedures In meeting the needs of students with disabilities, school library policies and practice must reflect federal guidelines, such as ADA-ABA guidelines, IDEIA, and Section 508. As indicated in the previous section, these federal guidelines include prescriptions for providing a space that is physically accessible, information that is intellectually accessible, specialized instruction that meets the needs of each individual student and other requirements (Adams 2009). These federal guidelines can be translated to more-specific policy actions that apply to school libraries, such as specialized selection policies, circulation periods, and accessibility to electronic and Web resources. School librarians also need to construct for their libraries service policies that accommodate the needs of students with disabilities. Flexible policies regarding circulation, and student-specific services such as extended lending periods and alternate methods of access like home delivery should be written into this policy, and should be transparent and shared with stakeholders (Farmer 2009). In constructing service policies, school librarians should maintain a perspective of diversity to ensure the school library is a safe and comfortable place where all students feel welcome to access information and participate meaningfully. School librarians should verify that the library staff is trained to address the diverse needs of students with a wide array of backgrounds and conditions, and should also take measures to ensure all students are able to attend and participate in events in school libraries (Burgstahler 2011). Although individual school districts and state education departments mandate their staffs to undergo training or courses that familiarize them with these federal guidelines, it is unclear from the current literature how school librarians translate these federal guidelines into specific policy actions within their school libraries, and whether or not implementation of the guidelines is approached systematically or through trial and error. Depending on the training and professional development to which school librarians have access during graduate school or via school-district professional development, school librarians may not be able to translate these guidelines into actual school library policies or be aware of the critical nature of these skills in practice. According to Farmer (2009), special educators have expertise in these areas and can assist the school librarian in designing policies and spaces that meet federal guidelines and are specially tailored for the students. Despite the umbrella of federal regulations, school librarians must also be aware of their state laws, which may vary from state to state. For example, schools in 4 School Library Research | www.ala.org/aasl/slr School Librarians as Ambassadors of Inclusive Information Access Volume 16 | ISSN: 2165-1019 Kentucky must offer students with disabilities equivalent access, not only providing modifications that enable access, as stated in the Accessible Information Technology (AIT) Act of 2000 (Adams 2009). Access to Facilities and Equipment Universal Design (UD) and the Environment The concern about access to facilities and equipment in SLPs includes physical and emotional accessibility as well as the assistive technologies (AT) that make information resources accessible to students with disabilities. In addition to adhering closely to federal guidelines for physical and intellectual access, embracing Universal Design (UD) guidelines is an optimal way to support students with disabilities in the school library (Blue and Pace 2011; Burgstahler 2011; Farmer 2009; Neal and Ehlert 2006; Parker 2007; Socol 2010; Wojahn 2006). By definition, UD is an architectural approach employed in public spaces to achieve a maximum benefit in accessibility for the largest number of users as opposed to designing spaces for the average user (Blue and Pace 2011). Understanding its impact when applied in the school library, UD has been described well by Sheryl Burgstahler: “When universal design is applied, everyone feels welcome, is able to get to the facility and maneuver within it, access materials and electronic resources, and participate in events and other activities” (2011, 5). UD can be understood within a few examples of physical environments that support access to students seated in wheelchairs: ramp access with appropriate gradients, full maneuverability radius between shelves and walkways, variant-height circulation desks, and adjustable workspaces. These factors accommodate the seated student and also support the accessibility of resources for all students, thereby not impeding access for any student in the library (Copeland 2011). When speaking about a universally designed space it is important to note that the nature of access affects people emotionally as well as physically. The school library must not be intimidating to the learner, but should be a welcoming space and an inclusive place of diversity and comfort (Burgstahler 2011; Socol 2010; Wojahn 2006). Students with disabilities will experience greater self-confidence in a school library that embraces these ideals of UD (Murray 2001). UD and Assistive Technology UD also refers to the assistive technology (AT) that scaffolds information access for students with disabilities (Farmer 2009; Blue and Pace 2011; Socol 2010). Janet Hopkins quoted from the IDEIA Act of 2004 to define AT as “any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of a child with a disability” (2006, 12). AT can supplement 508 compliance to “level the playing field” and bridge the digital divide for students with disabilities (Ennis-Cole and Smith 2011). AT is available as hardware, software, and web- based resources like touch-screen technologies, large-screen monitors, optical scanners, lightboxes, specialized keyboards, headsets with microphone, screen readers, speech-to-text converters, and browser add-ons with easy access to magnification or talking dictionaries (Burgstahler 2011; Cummings 2011; Ennis-Cole and Smith 2011; Farmer 2009; Hopkins 2006; Krueger and Stefanich 2011; Neal, and Ehlert 2006; Socol 2010). AT also takes the form of low- tech tools such as dry-erase boards, laminated photos and albums, three-ring binders, 5 School Library Research | www.ala.org/aasl/slr School Librarians as Ambassadors of Inclusive Information Access Volume 16 | ISSN: 2165-1019 highlighting tape, calculators, and timers to meet the myriad needs of students with disabilities (Ennis-Cole and Smith 2011). The use of virtual worlds, virtual reality, and video-modeling are effective AT for direct instruction (Ennis-Cole and Smith 2011). Hopkins (2006) has maintained that AT is naturally inclusive and provides options for all students, as opposed to simply providing access for students with disabilities. AT Leadership School librarians are best positioned to be technology leaders and to ally with the students and staff to transform schools and school libraries into dynamic and sophisticated learning environments (AASL 2009; Ennis-Cole and Smith 2011; Subramaniam et al. 2012). School librarians are also able to carefully select AT that will maximize physical and intellectual access to library resources based on students’ IEPs and disabilities, and to encourage the use of AT through its integration into the curriculum (Ennis-Cole and Smith 2011; Jones et al. 2010; Myles 2009). School librarians should embrace AT within their SLPs, providing AT training for their library staff and other school staff, if needed (Hopkins 2006). However, studies of school librarians in connection to students with disabilities have found that school librarians are often not consulted about AT acquisition and implementation, do not have a strong focus on AT in the school library, or lack training in its use (Perrault 2011a; Small, Snyder, and Parker 2009). Specific Services Variety of Formats Specific services refer to a variety of preferred formats within the collection that support physical and intellectual access to information resources and various modalities of instruction (Adams 2009; Ennis-Cole and Smith 2011; Farmer 2009). Based on UD, some of these preferred formats for students with disabilities are e-books, audiobooks, talking books, graphic novels, MP3 files and other digital media, Playaways, large print, DVDs, closed-captioned videos, streaming videos, podcasts, and Braille (Adams 2009; Gorman 1999; Hopkins 2006; Farmer 2009; Copeland 2011; Socol 2010). Welcoming Collection In addition, a welcoming collection includes materials that represent the diversity of its readers. All students in a school benefit when the school library’s collection includes literature featuring protagonists with a disability, using people-first language (“students with disabilities” vs. “disabled students”), containing accurate information, and including accurate and meaningful descriptions and illustrations reflecting students with special needs (Wopperer 2011a). Making available Schneider Family Book Award winners and nominees, books that include strong realistic characters with disabilities, and literature in a variety of accessible formats engenders a welcoming atmosphere in the school library, boosts the confidence of students with disabilities, and cultivates a culture of inclusion for all students (Socol 2010; Wopperer 2011a). Reader Advisory Reader advisory (RA), the interaction between school librarian and student as they build a 6 School Library Research | www.ala.org/aasl/slr School Librarians as Ambassadors of Inclusive Information Access Volume 16 | ISSN: 2165-1019 relationship around literacy, is as critical to students with disabilities as it is to any other learners. Providing literature in which students can see themselves reflected, suggesting materials where the right interest intersects with the right format, providing resources that align with IEPs, and obtaining regular feedback from students are all best practices for providing RA to students with disabilities (Cox and Lynch 2006; Gorman 1999; Jurkowski 2006; Copeland 2011; Socol 2010; Wopperer 2011a). Facilitated Intellectual Access Intellectual access should also be inclusive and multimodal or multi-encoded, providing a multisensory experience. Signage, normally encoded in one mode (print), should be encoded in two modes (e.g., large print, and color picture or symbol) or three modes (e.g., large print, and color picture or symbol, and Braille or other texture) to be accessible to a larger group of students. In terms of navigating the school library by means of signs and posters, multimodal or multi-encoded intellectual access is more inclusive to the special needs of students with disabilities (Farmer 2009). Customized Info-Literacy Instruction Customization of information-literacy instruction within the library benefits all students, especially those with disabilities. One approach to customization is to coordinate with and tap into the expertise of the school’s SPED teachers and IEP staff who have knowledge of both instructional design and students’ IEPs (Adams 2009; Ennis-Cole and Smith 2011; Farmer 2009; Murray 2001). Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Weaving the above-mentioned services with Universal Design for Learning (UDL) offers a more effective solution for serving the needs of students with disabilities. UDL approaches create more options for students to access, organize, and synthesize information into knowledge. UDL approaches include all students by providing students with multimodal ways to communicate and express their executive functions and creativity within the learning environment (Blue and Pace 2011; Burgstahler 2011; Guild 2008; Krueger and Stefanich 2011; Parker 2007; Perrault 2010). UDL is strongly tied to the principles of UD and to resources that connect students with disabilities to information—AT, educational technologies, print, non-print, and digital media— thus taking advantage of the strengths of preferred formats in tandem with augmented pacing, small group size, and iteration to tailor the learning experience to each unique student while focusing on successful transitions (Allen and Hughes-Hassell 2010; Burgstahler 2011; Perrault 2011b). By using UDL methods in regard to preferred resource formats and modes of instruction, school librarians can effectively engage students with disabilities in learning core curriculum content and developing 21st-century skills (Burgstahler 2011; Blue and Pace 2011; Guild 2008; Krueger and Stefanich 2011; Neal and Ehlert 2006; Parker 2007; Perrault 2010). Although not always explicitly described as UDL, inclusive and/or differentiated instruction has been observed to be effective for scaffolding the learning processes of students with various disabilities (Allen and Hughes-Hassell 2010; Ennis-Cole and Smith 2011; Gorman 1999; Murray 2002). In terms of collaboration with SPED teachers, school librarians’ expertise lies in accessing and evaluating information, providing appropriate or tailored resources, and offering 7 School Library Research | www.ala.org/aasl/slr School Librarians as Ambassadors of Inclusive Information Access Volume 16 | ISSN: 2165-1019 options in instruction and learning interactions (Perrault 2011a). Staff Development Benefits Staff development may include pre-service training through accredited library graduate programs, or in-service professional development. Especially for school librarians serving specific disabilities in schools, this training should have two tracks: 1) a general track covering federal regulations and UD/UDL, and 2) a targeted disability track with training specific to a particular disability (Farmer 2009). Training that supports a school librarian’s knowledge of best practices in interaction with and empowerment of students with disabilities can help to ensure that SLPs provide a welcoming environment to students with disabilities, uniquely tailored services, and resources for positive academic student outcomes (Jurkowski 2006). Need to Determine Optimal Approach Despite a recent push for training within the profession to best support the needs of students with disabilities, there seems to be a lack of discussion on what type of formal training should be provided. Janet Murray (2001) has stated that 79 percent of Australian school librarians were strongly urged to collaborate to meet the special needs of students, but reported needing disability-specific training beyond the general disabilities training that only half the respondents had received. Although the research by Murray (2001, 2002) has drawn international attention to the need for further-refined research exploring the role school librarians play in meeting the needs of students with disabilities, very few studies have extensively examined the state of SLPs from a SPED perspective in the U.S. Evidence of Insufficient Training John E. Cox’s 2004 study of forty-eight rural Missouri K–6 school districts focused on the training and knowledge of school librarians in meeting the needs of students with disabilities, particularly in an underserved geographical area. The resulting data that emerged was discouraging. Less than 50 percent of the school librarians in the sample had ADA-ABA training, and close to 100 percent of school librarians believed the school library was ADA- ABA-compliant despite the fact that answers to specific survey questions about physical and intellectual access clearly did not add up to full compliance—a circumstance pointing to both a deficit in students’ access and a lack in recognition of this deficit (Cox 2004). Anne Marie Perrault’s (2011a) study of six New York State public schools examined the relationship between school librarians and SPED teachers; her study also evaluated their instructional partnership and potential for collaboration. Perrault found that teachers were interested in providing better support for their students, but were frustrated by the search for resources that met the special needs of their students. School librarians saw the need for a wide range of multimodal approaches, and played to their strengths as leaders and information gatekeepers, but gaps in optimizing the situation for SPED teachers and students were identified as stemming from lack of training within coursework in library and information science post- graduate degree programs. 8 School Library Research | www.ala.org/aasl/slr School Librarians as Ambassadors of Inclusive Information Access Volume 16 | ISSN: 2165-1019 Similarly, in their statewide survey of school librarians’ role in New York State public schools, Ruth V. Small, Jaime Snyder, and Katie Parker (2009) found that only 3 percent of school librarians surveyed have had SPED training. As a consequence, school librarians tended to place a stronger focus on IEPs and selecting materials reflecting persons with disabilities as protagonists rather than on providing physical and intellectual accessibility or on bringing AT expertise into the librarians’ role as technology specialists. In 2011, Demetria Ennis-Cole and Daniella Smith reported the results of their nationwide study of public school librarians and their skills in supporting students with autism. These researchers recommended that specific SPED training in the library and information science (LIS) curriculum would better equip school librarians to serve the special needs of these students and encourage librarians to take a leadership role in AT in their schools. Yet there is an astonishing lack of dedicated coursework to prepare emerging and returning school librarians in meeting the challenges of empowering students with disabilities. An examination of U.S. News & World Report’s top school library post-graduate programs reveals that only two out of thirteen top school library programs in the U.S. have coursework designed to prepare librarians to meet the needs of students with disabilities specifically within the school library environment. Clearly, a deficit in pre-service and in-service staff development in both the general and targeted disability tracks is evident. Methodology Research Questions The purpose of this study is to examine the ways that SLPs serve students in schools that serve only students with a specific disability, such as vision impairment, autism, etc., (referred to as SPED schools), and the challenges and solutions associated with providing access and tailored services. We formulated four research questions based on Gibson’s categories of critical library services (Gibson 2006; Farmer 2009): (1) How do school librarians adopt federal guidelines on disability to better serve students with specific disabilities in these SPED schools? (2) What are the types of facilities, services, and resources SLPs provide to students in these SPED schools? (3) What are the technologies (including adaptive) that facilitate physical and intellectual access for these students within the school library? (4) What specialized training enables these school librarians to best support the needs of students in SPED schools? Sample Using purposeful sampling, we selected four schools serving students with a specific disability in the mid-Atlantic region: • School A serves students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), Asperger’s syndrome and PDD; • School B serves students with vision impairment; • School C serves students with disorders of the brain, spinal cord and musculoskeletal 9 School Library Research | www.ala.org/aasl/slr School Librarians as Ambassadors of Inclusive Information Access Volume 16 | ISSN: 2165-1019 system; • School D serves students with hearing impairment. These targeted schools are specifically modeled with a primary and specialized focus on the needs of students with disabilities. Such purposeful sampling provided us with rich and in-depth data on each SLP that serves specific disabilities. Observation and Interview Protocols Using a case-study approach, we observed the school libraries in the above-mentioned schools and conducted semi-structured interviews with the librarians. Robert K. Yin (1994, 2003) and Sharon B. Merriam (2001) have provided guidelines for conducting multiple case studies. Yin defines the case-study method as “an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon with its real-life context; when the boundaries between the phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence is used” (1994, 23). Case studies allow for unique and very detailed information to be gathered. Based on Gibson’s categories of critical library services (Gibson 2006; Farmer 2009), we developed a set of questions used to interview the school librarians. Refer to Appendix A for our interview protocol. School librarians were asked about: • their familiarity with federal guidelines pertaining to SPED and their experience developing SLP policy; • how school library facilities support physical access; • ways that specific services—including collection development, RA, and instruction— support intellectual access; • what kinds of AT and educational technologies are used in the school library and what the librarians’ role is in relation to these technologies; • levels of collaboration with teachers; • their educational background and how well they believe it prepared them for their current position; and • how further training is made available to them, who supports this training, and the ways they stay abreast of SPED librarianship, including professional memberships, attending conferences, networking, and finding information through the Web. Each interview lasted approximately sixty minutes and was digitally recorded with the permission of the school librarians. The interview guide was pilot-tested with two retired librarians from SPED schools. Based on the initial review of literature and research on UD and UDL and the federal guidelines (U.S. Access Board 2004; Blue and Pace 2011; Burgstahler 2011; Farmer 2009; Copeland 2011; Perrault 2010; Wojahn 2006; Wopperer 2011b), we identified a wealth of information pertaining to the characteristics, facilities, technologies, and collection resources that foster physical and intellectual access for students with disabilities and position the school library to be an inclusively welcoming and engaging space for all students. Many authors compiled lists within their own articles, and we followed their examples by creating a master list to capture data on the characteristics, facilities, technologies, and collection resources of each school library during our observations. Refer to Appendix B for our observation checklist. Characteristics were broken up into categories of access with blank spaces left throughout the checklist to add other characteristics as we observed them. As part of the observation process, we also took photographs to supplement the field notes recorded during the visit. 10 School Library Research | www.ala.org/aasl/slr