110 Saxon and Medieval Leicester: The Making of an Urban Landscape by Paul Courtney This article takes an interdisciplinary approach to the Saxon and medieval evolution of Leicester's landscape. Documentary, archaeo logical and architectural evidence is combined with comparative material from other N.W. European towns to propose a model of topographic organisation and development. The present study of Leicester's urban topography arose out of documentary research on the Shires excavation project and the need to place its topography in a wider context. The main aim is to provide a starting point for debate on Leicester's topographic development and a theoretical framework for interpreting past and future archaeological finds. It is essential that the detailed interpretation of individual sites be placed in a wider context if archaeology is to add to our understanding of Leicester's evolution. Hohenberg and Lees (1985) chose Leicester to illustrate a typical north European medieval town in their influential overview of European urbanism over the last millennium. Certainly it is the contention of this current study that the processes that led to Leicester's current topographic form can be widely paralleled not only in other English urban centres but across north-western Europe. The starting point for any research on Leicester is the body of material collected by John Nichols in volume 1 (part ii) of his county history published in 1815. The publication of the first volume of the borough records in 1899, edited by the notable urban historian Mary Bateson, began the,modern phase of research into Leicester's history. This and the subsequent volumes, along with Nichols, were extensively used by Billson in his useful topographical account of 1920. In 1958, volume 4 of the Victoria County History provided the first modem historical account of the history of the town, though its purpose was to be a reliable source of reference rather than an interpretative history. Subsequent important summaries of the town's development include those by Brown (ed. 1972), Martin (1972), Simmons (1974) and Chinnery (1986a). Origins A Middle Anglian diocese was created out of the see of Lichfield in the 680s. Certainly from 737, and possibly from the beginning, it was located in Leicester. The bishopric of Leicester disappeared with the Viking invasion of the 870s and was replaced by a new see at Dorchester on Thames (Oxfordshire). In the reign of William the Conqueror the cathedral moved from Dorchester to Lincoln (Kirby 1966 and Bailey 1980). It is unclear to what extent Leicester was occupied in the two centuries before the see was created. Pagan-Saxon burials have been found outside the Roman walls at Westcotes, Rowley Fields, Churchgate and Belgrave Gate and further out at Glen Parva, Wigston, Oadby, Thurmaston and Birstall. This led Bailey ( 1980, 10) to suggest that the town was a focus of early Anglo-Saxon settlement. However, the significance of any such distribution is distorted by the fact that most of Trans. Leicestershire Archaeol. and Hist. Soc., 72 (l 998) SAXON AND MEDIEVAL LEICESTER: THE MAKING OF AN URBAN LANDSCAPE 111 / / / / N i A ~ -~. r ,' (/ BLACK FRIARS ~ \ I '3, \ «., ,\ , \ \ . ~« \ 29 \ '· \\ ) / /j' # Buildings Town wall Rs.- "'G - "'a...:,..ii lJ 13 s ... o, __ c;o.....,....,..,. NEWARKE 100 JOO Me1 rcs l. Medieval Leicester (after Buckley and Lucas I 987, fig. 27) 112 Key to illus. 1 (Medieval Leicester). Excavations (LM site code in brackets) A. Saxo-Norman pottery kiln, 1964 (A479). B. Cameo Cinema excavation, 1992 (Al4). C. Shires excavation (Little Lane), 1988-9 (A39). D. Shires excavation (St Peter's Lane), 1988-9 (A40). E. Causeway Lane excavations, 1980 (A475) & 1991 (Al). F. Oxford St. excavation, 1993-4 (Al68) and 1997 (A54). G. 71-95 Sanvey Gate excavation, 1992 (A61). H. Shakespeares Head excavation, Southgate St., 1968 (A138). J. Guildhall Lane undercroft, 1989 (A 18). K. Forum excavations, 1971 (A302) and 1973 (A295). L. St. Nicholas Circle excavation, 1969 (A163). 1. North Gate 21. Common Ovens and Shambles 2. East Gate 22. Wygston's House 3. West Gate 23. Guildhall 4. South Gate 24. Highcross 5. Castle Hall 25. Red Cross 6. John of Gaunt's Cellar 26. Berehill Cross 7. Castle House 27. Wygston's Hospital 8. Turret Gateway 28. Old Barn 9. Trinity Hospital 29. St. Augustine's Well 10. Chantry 30. Little Bow Bridge 11. Wygston's Chantry House 31. Bow Bridge 12. Newarke Gateway (Magazine) 32. West Bridge 13. Rupert's Tower 33. Possible openings across the town wall: 14. Angular Tower market place 15. Castle Mill 34. Possible openings across the town wall: City 16. Newarke Mill Wall Street 17. Shire Hall 18. Gaol Note. The sites of St. Manins and St. Peter's churches 19. St. John's Hospital are approximate. See Martin 1990 and LRO 20. Old Guildhall (Mayor's Hall) I D63123 for respective locations. these sites would not have been found but for the l 9th- and 20th-century expansion of Leicester and its commuter satellites. Nevertheless, there are several finds of early-Saxon objects from within Leicester's walls (Rutland 1975, 54-62 and Liddle 1982, 5). Two sunken feature buildings of early/middle-Saxon date have been excavated recently at sites on Oxford Street (Finn 1994; Gossip, this vol. below p.160). However, their situation (illus. 1: F) to the south of the town walls, may suggest a relationship with rural rather than proto-urban patterns of settlement. Recent excavations have also produced early/middle-Saxon pottery from the Little Lane (c. 29 sherds), St. Peter's Lane (c. 55 sherds) and Causeway Lane (c. 13 sherds) sites (illus. 1: C-E). On the St. Peter's Lane site a bone comb of late 5th- to early 6th-century date was also found (R. Buckley, pers. comm.). It is unclear if this evidence indicates a concentration of activity in the north-east area of the town as the stratigraphy is shallow and the excavations relatively large in area compared with many other parts of Leicester. The urban location of the Leicester bishopric followed a common pattern. There has been marked controversy, notably with reference to Winchester, over whether or not such ecclesiastical centres were located next to pre-existing Anglo-Saxon royal centres. Biddle ( 1972) suggested that Winchester's cathedral of the 7th and 8th centuries was linked to an adjacent royal palace, though he admitted a lack of positive evidence. More recently, Yorke (1982) has argued firmly against an early royal presence at Winchester SAXON AND MEDIEVAL LEICESTER: THE MAKING OF AN URBAN LANDSCAPE 113 and points to Southampton as the nearest royal centre. Deserted former Roman towns may have been attractive as unused land in the gift of kings and princes, and would have also offered ample building stone as well as symbolic links to the past. Another factor may have been the canons issued by early councils of the Christian church in 320 and 343 which ordered that bishops should have their seats in urbes or civitates (Hill 1977, 300). There are certainly indications of some post Roman activity within the walls of Leicester. Indeed Hall (1989, 165-6) has noted, even before the recent Shires and Causeway Lane excavations, that the number of early Saxon finds exceeds those in others of the later Five Boroughs (Lincoln, Stamford, Nottingham and Derby). Nevertheless, even if these finds constitute evidence for occupation this is far from indicating the presence of a site of high status. The geographic dispersal of 'urban' functions appears to be not uncommon in early Saxon England. A case can be made that the intimate association of bishopric and royalty was to a great extent a development of the late 8th century onwards, perhaps reflecting increasing Carolingian influence on the ideology of English kingship (Hodges 1989, 117-8 and 121-2). Another possibility is that the early bishopric at Leicester was linked to a nearby rural royal site. Cain ( 1990, 20-1) has argued that Leicester may once have formed part of a royal estate centred on Ratby or Groby. In 1066 Ratby and Groby were held by Ulf and in 1086 were in the hands of Hugh Grandmesnil, castellan of Leicester. Among Ratby's sokelands were two carucates in Bromkinsthorpe within the parish of St. Mary de Castro. Cain has suggested that this may indicate that Leicester split off from a royal manor based on Ratby or Groby. This must be considered a possibility but fission was not the only process at work in the evolution of estates. It is just as likely that Bromkinsthorpe, or rather part of it, was an addition to Ratby which lay on the other side of Leicester Forest. It is also possible that Bromkinsthorpe, whether or not once part of a Ratby estate, was only gradually encroached upon by the influence of the borough. Certainly the burgesses did not have common rights in the West Field from at least the 12th century onward (RBL, passim). The name 'Bromkinsthorpe' is also suggestive of a separate (now lost) settlement nucleus. It is possible therefore that its connection to the borough did not originate in a great primary estate but instead derived from the later seigneurial interests of its lords, and may not pre-date the English reconquest of the Danelaw in the 10th century. The presence of a wic (undefended trading centre) at middle-Saxon Leicester, at least before the reign of Offa (757-796), seems unlikely given the lack of evidence for this kind of settlement in Mercia. Certainly the sceattas of Aethelbald's reign (716-57) mostly occur not in the Mercian heartland, but widely scattered in a frontier zone between Middle Anglia and Essex, possibly indicating inter-tribal exchange via periodic fairs (Metcalf 1977). The laws of Offa's reign clearly indicate the presence of fortified burhs in Mercia (Brooks 1971), and archaeological evidence suggests that one phase of the town defences of Hereford dates to this general period. More controversially, Haslam (1987) has argued that Offa's reign saw the creation of a systematic defence system against the Vikings comprising burhs with attached markets. However, Hodges (1989, 143) has noted the lack of evidence for craft production in the Mercian burhs comparable with London or Ipswich. He argues that Mercia was more likely to have been served by periodic markets, whether or not controlled by burhs. The distribution of pennies of Offa's reign suggests that regular circulation was restricted to S.E. England and emphasises the importance of London as a Mercian wic (Hinton 1990, 62-3). In view of Leicester's ecclesiastical significance it should be noted that Sawyer (1981) has suggested that some early markets and fairs arose to serve the gatherings attracted by religous sites. 114 Williams (1984, 133) has suggested that it was the Danish occupation which gave a major stimulant to urbanism in Northampton at the beginning of the tenth century. He has drawn special attention to the finds of ten St. Edmund memorial coins from the town. These coins were minted by Danish settlers c. 880-910. A single St. Edmunds coin has recently been found in a residual context on the Little Lane (Shires) excavation (illus. 1: C) in Leicester, on the modem High St. (Courtney, forthcoming b). Both Leicester and Northampton are recorded together as centres of Danish armies by the ASC in 914 and 91 7. Leicester was recovered from the Danish when it surrendered peacefully to Aethelflaed in 918 (ASC), who died that summer. In Domesday Book (I, f.230a) the name of Leicester Forest was Hereswood, 'the army's wood' which presumably dates to the period of Danish occupation. Nevertheless, despite Leicester's military importance, it cannot be assumed that it had acquired an urban character by this period. Leicester temporarily fell to the Viking, Olaf Guthfrithsson, in 940 but the borough was recovered by Edmund in 942. Many coins before Edgar's reform of 973 cannot be assigned to a mint as they often lack a mint name on the reverse. However, a mint was certainly established at Leicester in the reign of Athelstan (925-39) and was well established from the reign of Edgar (959-75) (Blunt et al 1989, 256 & 261). A recent study by Freeman (1985, 299-307) suggests there were four established moneyers at Leicester for much of the reign of Edward the Confessor (1042-66). Apart from the St. Edmund memorial penny from the Shires, only one 9th- to 11 th-century coin has been reported from Leicester, a penny of Aethelred (Metcalf 1980, 43). However, this latter coin would appear to be an attribution in error for a find from South Croxton, subsequently published by Clough (1986). For comparison, Hinton (1986, 16) noted that 32 coins of the period 800-1100 had been recovered from Lincoln and 13 from Northampton in excavations since 1960. However, this difference probably largely reflects the lack of Saxo-Norman stratigraphy encountered in Leicester in contrast to the other two boroughs. Settlement and topography A feature interpreted as the stoke-pit of a Saxo-Norman pottery kiln, was excavated in 1964, on the west side of Southgate St. (Hebditch 1967-8). The kiln was sited on the edge of the modem street frontage but overlaid a Roman street surface (illus. 1: A). It produced wheel-thrown (reduced, sandy) wares akin to the Thetford products. Eight comparable vessels, which may be products of the Leicester kiln, have been found on the Flaxengate site in Lincoln in late 9th- to early 11 th-century contexts (Gilmour 1988, 157). Other vessels, which may also be from Leicester, have been recovered from early 1O th-century contexts at Northampton (McCarthy 1979, 163-4 and Gryspeerdt 1981, 118: fabric W36). A date-range within the late 9th to mid 10th centuries seems likely for the Leicester kiln by analogy with the locally-produced Northampton and Lincoln sandy wares. The location of the Leicester kiln on a main thoroughfare is intriguing. Potting in many towns, for example Thetford and Norwich, seems to be confined to the periphery, perhaps because of fire risk (Hinton 1990, 90). The Leicester kiln, however, was situated on the main street frontage of the town, though perhaps there were groups of buildings rather than a continuously built-up frontage. A kiln of approximately 7th- to early 1 Oth-century date has been excavated in Horsemarket Street, Northampton. It also lies on the main N-S axial street within the presumed late-Saxon defences and is within 200m. of the middle-Saxon minster/palace SAXON AND MEDIEVAL LEICESTER: THE MAKING OF AN URBAN LANDSCAPE 115 complex (Williams 197 4). Tenth-century kiln wasters have also been found in Westgate St. (another axial street), in Gloucester, near the centre of the town (Vince 1979). Only seven sherds tentatively identified as late-Saxon 'Leicester ware' have been excavated in Leicester. One came from a residual context from St. Nicholas Circle (Sawday 1994, 118 and table 17). Six sherds have been also noted from possible lOth century contexts on the 1968 Shakespeare's Head site in Southgate St. (the medieval High St.), though this was only a short distance from the site of the Saxo-Norman kiln (ill us. 1: H). Eighteen shell-tempered sherds of Lincoln origin have also recently been identified by Jane Young from excavations of medieval tenements on the site of the Roman forum (ill us. 1: K) along the medieval High St. (A302 1971: 17 sherds and A295 1973: 1 sherd). These wares (Lincoln fabrics LKT and LSNS) date to the period between the late 9th and early 11 th centuries (Gilmour 1988, 83 and 93; D. Sawday, pers. comm.). Mention should also be made of a rich group of Anglo-Scandinavian bonework found in Highcross St. (the medieval High Street) in 1864 (Cottrill 1946 nos. 18 and 200-3, Fox 1933 and Rutland 1975, no. 49c). This collection includes a late 11 th-century beast-head terminal and a late 1 Oth-/early 11 th-century strap-end (Backhouse et al. 1984, nos. 133 and 274). There was also a beast-head knife handle, a double-ended bone pin and another possible knife handle. These finds were found 7ft deep, possibly at no. 25, Highcross St. It looks highly likely that Saxo-Norman occupation levels were disturbed by cellar construction. In the same street a bronze pendant with openwork animal ornament of 1O th/11 th century date was found during the demolition of St. John's Hospital (illus. 1: 19) in 1859 (Rutland 1975, no. 49b and Cottrill 1946, no. 199). Ring-headed pins of Viking type have been found in Cank St. and on the Jewry Wall excavation (Rutland 1975, nos. 45 and 52b; Kenyon 1948, 262 & fig.89: 14). At the moment there is little pottery which can be assigned to the 11 th century in Leicester other than a proportion of the small amounts of excavated Lincoln wares, Torksey/Thetford-type ware, and Stamford ware (D. Sawday, pers. comm.). An 11 th century pit has been recently excavated on the Cameo Cinema site on the Swinesmarket (modern High St.). However, it is probable that the useage of ceramics markedly increased in Leicester with the emergence of a local production centre at Potters Marston in the late 11 th or early 12th centuries (Sawday 1991). Such a development may have been encouraged by the increasing commercialisation of the general economy (Britnell 1993; Britnell and Campbell 1995). Overall there does seem to be a concentration of late-Saxon archaeological finds on the medieval High St. (illus. 1). It is possible that the tenth century saw both growth and reorganisation of settlement associated with the emergence of a truly urban economy. The documentary evidence also sheds some light on the much discussed location of the Anglo-Scandinavian borough. An inquest in 1253 inquired into the origin of gafolpence and pontage, both payments to the earl, in Leicester (RBL i, 39-43). The explanation given, almost certainly apocryphal, states that gafolpence of 3d a year was due from every house with a gable looking onto High Street (alta strata). The alta strata certainly refers to the entire length of the N-S axial road (modern Highcross and Southgate Streets). The primacy of this street is also suggested by its width, it clearly stands out as still Leicester's widest street on the 1888 OS map. It seems likely that it was the magnus vicus (great street) in which a house (mansura), held in burgage, was granted to N uneaten Priory in the 12th century (Stenton 1920, nos. 246 and 259). However, by the 13th century the plural-term 'high streets' may also have covered the four axial streets 116 of the town leading to the gates, as it clearly did in an order of 1355 forbidding the wandering of pigs. The other roads in 1355 were described as lanes (RBL ii, 103). The collection of gafolpence or land.gavel represents an archaic payment of Saxon origin which was originally one of the chief features of burgage tenure (Tait 1936, 90-1). Its limited application in Leicester suggests that at some point it became fossilized and new urban properties did not pay the tax. Similar fossilization is evident at Cambridge, where the tax remained constant after I 086 (ibid, 9 I). Langton ( 1977, 268) has suggested that landgavel in Gloucester was applied at the creation of the borough in the tenth century and not extended thereafter to new properties, except through fragmentation. However, Heighway (1984a, 45) has noted that unlike other towns it was a variable tax, suggesting a late origin and that its distribution accords better with the archaeological evidence for 11 th and 12th century settlement. Unfortunately we do not know at what point in· the Saxo-Norman period in Leicester the geographical extent of gafolpence collection was fossilised though a pre-Norman date seems highly likely. It certainly suggests a primary zone of settlement in Leicester along the north-south axial street. The lack of late-Saxon archaeology from Leicester itself is not altogether surprising. The geographic spread of the town until at least the 11 th century was probably very restricted. The axial streets have been badly destroyed by development including the 1902 widening of the north side of High Street and the construction of SotJthgates underpass of the 1960s. Damage to Saxon layers by later medieval occupation may have been considerable, but 19th century cellaring has probably been the most damaging ( cf. Lucas 1980-1, fig. 7). Most importantly it should be noted that much of the excavation in Leicester has concentrated on the areas beyond the axial frontages. Even in Gloucester and Hereford where late-Saxon features have been excavated, the amount of tenth century pottery is not large. Late-Saxon pits occur in both towns but are relatively rare (Shoesmith 1982; Heighway 1984a and 1984b). Recent work at Lincoln suggests an 11 th century date for the inception of widespread pit digging (Gilmour 1988) while the 12th century seems to herald the same phenomen in Leicester (D. Sawday, pers. comm.) Ethno-archaeological research, for instance that carried out in Central America by Hayden and Cannon (1983) suggests that the prime purpose for dumping rubbish in pits is to prevent inorganic items, notably ceramic sherds and bones, from interfering with gardening activities. A number of factors including the increasing density of urban population, decreasing accessibility of the town fields and rising ceramic usage may have led to the increasing use of rubbish pits. However, Hayden and Cannon's research also noted that rubbish might be dumped in pits dug initially for other purposes. This is an area clearly deserving more detailed analysis. It is uncertain if a perceived decline of pit digging after the 13th century in Leicester (R. Buckley, pers. comm.) is an indication of demographic contraction or changing patterns of rubbish disposal. In 1467 a borough ordinance obliged householders to keep the street clean in front of their house. A further ordinance of 1508 forbade the dumping of rubbish on the streets both within the walls and in the suburbs. It also ordered that rubbish be disposed of at four communal dumps on the urban periphery: at the end of Belgrave Gate, in the field beyond Gallowtree Gate end, beyond the Horse Fair and on the banks of the River Soar by the communal privy (RBL ii, 290-1 and 380). It is uncertain to what extent these references record earlier practices. It has been often suggested that t4ere is an element of planning in the layout of Leicester's streets with evidence of a rudimentary grid and at least remnants of an outer road following the inside of the defences (e.g. Buckley and Lucas 1987, 56-7). The main determining feature of this pattern, the Roman defences and gates, may· well have SAXON AND MEDIEVAL LEICESTER: THE MAKING OF AN URBAN LANDSCAPE 11 7 given rise to it through organic growth and/or piecemeal planning. It will be necessary to show archaeologically that the elements ancillary to the main axial streets date to a common period to confirm the theory of planning (cf. Hall 1989, 168 and Williams 1979, 140). It should be remembered, however, that the pattern of non-axial streets could predate any occupation along them. There are distinct similarities between the early plans of Leicester and Gloucester. The latter's regular, rectilinear street-plan, though limited to its eastern side, does, however, offer a sharp contrast to Leicester. Nevertheless a lack of overall planning does not rule out the possibility of smaller, planned blocks of properties having been laid out within parts of Leicester. Buckley and Lucas (1987, 56) have suggested that the N-S axial street skirts the site of the forum suggesting it was still standing as a ruin perhaps even into the late-Saxon period. Lucas (1980-1) in his survey of urban deposition has noted a thinning of deposits over the forum. Certainly excavations on the forum site suggest that the structure remained standing, at least in part, well into the post-Norman period (R. Buckley and J. Lucas, pers. comm.). On the other hand the western half of the main E W axial street crosses the forum, which may suggest a later date for this street. It was certainly the least significant of the axial str~ets and topographically cannot be differentiated from the adjacent lanes. One peculiarity of plan is the way the E-W street curves south to the West Bridge. One possibility is that a bridge originally lay further north and was moved when the Austin Friary was established, though no evidence for this was found during the Friary excavations (Mellor and Pearce 1981). If there was such a bridge and a street leading to it, it would result in a better E-W symmetry of the town's street plan, with only the non-axial streets curving north and south from the West Bridge and East Gate towards the N-S axial road. However, it seems a great expense to have built a new bridge when there was presumably plenty of space to site the friary on the south end of its island. Possibly the bridge was sited where it is because this was the easiest crossing-point, or because it post-dated the development of the street pattern around the church of St. Nicholas. A ferry or ford may formerly have sufficed. Perhaps more likely is that the site of the medieval west gate respects the position of its Roman predecessor. (cf. Buckley and Lucas 1986, figs.24 and 26). The E-W axial street could then be seen as heading from the east gate in a fairly direct line towards St. Nicholas and then curving round to the Roman gate. Alternatively, the St. Nicholas area street-plan may have developed at a time when the western route out of the town was insignificant. The focus of settlement in this area may thus have been the church itself. The curvilinear aspect of the non-axial streets has also been noted by Lilley (1991) in a recent plan~unit analysis of Leicester based on the 1888 Ordnance Survey map. No clear pattern of burgage size variation is apparent as may be discerned in many other old county towns (Baker 1992). Lilley instead relies upon 'seams' in the pattern of street and property bounds to delineate plan-units. It is argued that these reflect units of urban growth. He suggests three main plan units centred on St. Nicholas, the High Cross and St. Martin's. This is indeed the area of most concentrated urban development. However, it is not at all clear that such blocks represent either planned units or phases of expansion. The arguments made above in the present article would instead suggest that the street and plot pattern arose only as the end result of a complex evolutionary process based on an earlier axial street system. The choice of some of Lilley's seams also appears to be arbitrary, nor does he take sufficiently into account amalgamation of medieval plots. For instance, why choose Dead Lane rather than the All Saints/St. Peter's parish boundary or even St. Peter's Lane as a seam (see Courtney, forthcoming a. 118 on this area). Lilley's main argument, though, is that the curvilinear bounds to these units imply an earlier intra-mural defensive circuit. Certainly a curvilinear aspect to the non-axial streets exists but this does not necessarily imply a defensive enclosure. There are undoubtedly greater difficulties in applying plan-unit analysis to large towns with complex 'organic' histories and active land-markets than to the small planned towns in which the method was developed (Baker 1992). It is of course possible that the non axial streets existed long before they were developed for housing. Potentially, therefore, they could still fossilise an early defensive circuit. The suggested primacy of the north south and possibly east-west axial roads, combined with the funnelling effects of the gates, might also tend to give rise to curvilinear backlanes without their necessarily indicating a defensive barrier. This would be the case especially if the street layout was unplanned. In particular it should also be remembered that Leicester was not flat but that the ground sloped to the north as well as to the east and west of an approximately central north-south axis (Lucas 1980-1, figs.2-4). Furthermore, curvilinear features can be seen in the lanes (e.g. Friars Preachers Lane, Torchemere and St. John's Lane: illus. 1) to the north of Lilley's postulated defence, which cannot be explained by its existence. The concept of intra-mural enceintes cannot be discounted though the suggested circuit poses several military problems. It might be thought that it would have been more efficient to utilise a comer of the existing defences, especially as Lilley's enclosure constitutes nearly half the later town. However, more alarming is that the line of the suggested eastern enceinte (alongside Parchment Lane) was within a stone's throw of the Roman walls which would have considerably weakened its military effectiveness by providing a ready-made siegework. It is possible that there was a Viking defence of some sort dating from the period of English reconquest, but so far there is a lack of archaeological evidence for such urban defences elsewhere in the Danelaw. It is possible that Leicester's eroded Roman defences continued to serve as the bounds of whatever urban settlement had developed at Leicester. It is more certain that the town was a military meeting-place, and Phythian-Adams (1986, 10) suggests that the Skeyth (O.Danish, 'race-track' or 'boundary road'), later Sanvey Gate, possibly served as the site for both races and communal gatherings (see also Cox 1971, 129-30). Martin (1972, 268) has argued that the concentration of churches in the northern part of the town indicates a concentration of population. However, the distribution of urban churches may be more a reflection of the distribution of urban estates or fees rather than demography. We can postulate a phase when urban development was largely confined to the axial streets and possibly only the north-south axis, the medieval High Street. Subsequently the outer quarters would have been infilled. Of the borough's intra-mural churches, St. Nicholas and All Saints lie on the primary axial core but St. Michael's, St. Peter's and St. Martin's all lie in back streets. Recent excavations at the Shires and Causeway Lane (illus. 1: C-E) have produced l 2th- to early l 3th-century pit groups containing Potters Marston ware and other fabrics, such as Nottingham and Leicester splashed wares (D. Sawday, pers. comm.). Material of a similar date is also associated with the earliest traces of medieval settlement recently uncovered in Sanvey Gate, outside the north wall (Finn 1992). A late 12th-century stone undercroft (cellar) has recently been rediscovered and surveyed by the archaeology unit in Guildhall Lane (illus. 1: D and indicates a high status, stone-built house with a hall over an undercroft (Hagar and Buckley 1990). A second stone hall (aula lapidea), belonging to Leicester Abbey, is recorded by Charyte's rental as being situated on the south side of St. Peter's cemetery. (Laud 625, fos.97v, 178v and 189r). A deed of 1725 locates the cemetery about 30 yards south of St. John's Lane (LRO 1D63/23). The hall was therefore SAXON AND MEDIEVAL LEICESTER: THE MAKJNG OF AN URBAN I.AND SCAPE 11 9 probably located on the north side of St. Peter's Lane. It was rented by the abbey to lord William de Herle in 1341, and was said to have been formerly tenanted by William Wascena, probably the William de Wasteneis or Wasteney who held a fee at Kirby Bellars c. 1230. The hall is last recorded in 1477 when it was rented by William de Hastings, whose family had inherited the de Herle estates in 1367. This building could also have been a late 12th-century, town house of the Jew's House (Lincoln) type with a first-floor hall (see Wood 1965, 1-15). Little excavation has taken place along the axial roads. Exceptions are the forum site of the 1960s along the west side of Highcross St. and the 1992 excavation on the site of the Cameo cinema (illus. 1: B), on the south side of High St. (Cooper 1992 and Julian Hagar, pers. comm.). On both sites the first evidence for structures or boundaries was dated to the 13th century. The forum site may not be typical because it may have con tinued to be used as a stone quarry after the Norman Conquest. On neither site was it possible, owing to cellaring and safety considerations, to examine the immediate street frontage. The shop-units of the later medieval buildings on both sites were not recovered but only the hall and kitchen blocks behind. It is possible that evidence for pre-13th century occupation will only be found closer to the frontages. Certainly l 3th-century and later occupation is much more archaeologically visible due to improvements in housing, with elongate plans which run back from the frontages, and the use of stone construction for foundations and boundary walls. As mentioned above, late-Saxon pottery was recovered from residual contexts on the forum site, and an 11 th-century pit was found on the Cameo excavations. However, the sparsity of evidence for 12th-century occupation on both sites, a period when digging of refuse pits in Leicester was common, is striking. Before the 13th century the Cameo site appears to have been cultivated. More comparative evidence is needed, but the above excavated sites do suggest infilling of settlement. It is thus possible that the sub-division of large, early properties, or communal areas, into narrow 'burgage' plots may still have been taking place along the axial streets in the 13th century. The sub-division of properties in Winchester appears to have been a long drawn out process, reflecting population expansion, and is traceable from the 10th to 12th centuries (Biddle and Keene 1976a, 343). The mint and north suburb The foundation charter of Leicester Abbey (c. 1139) included the grant of 5 virgates and 8 houses (mansiones) outside the North Gate (Crouch 1990, 7-9). In addition the grant included a carucate at the North Bridge which had lain at the mint (Ad pontem de Norht carrucatem terre que iacebat olim ad cuneos monete). The reasons for the removal of the mint from the north suburb and its subsequent location are uncertain. The last coinage which can be ascribed to the Leicester mint is the Tealby Type A coinage of c. 1158-61 (North 1980, ii, 1840). The evidence of Winchester suggests that Leicester's mint may have comprised a number of distinct moneyer's workshops rather than a single structure. At Winchester five monete or workshops stood close together in the High St. in the early 12th century (Biddle and Keene 1976a, 397-99). Unfortunately the Abbey charter does not indicate on which side of the bridge Leicester's mint was located. However, the mint is most likely to have been located within, or adjacent to, the area defined by the abbey's parish of St. Leonards (36 acres in 1891). In 1477 the abbey had 24 messuages, 34 cottages and a bark house in Abbey Gate and 2 messuages and 5 cottages in Woodgate, probably all within the parish of St. Leonard's. The parish also included part of the island (now Frog Island) to the south of