Santa Bárbara’s Legacy: An Environmental History of Huancavelica, Peru <UN> Brill’s Series in the History of the Environment Series Editor Aleks Pluskowski VOLUME 5 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/bshe <UN> Santa Bárbara’s Legacy: An Environmental History of Huancavelica, Peru By Nicholas A. Robins LEIDEN | BOSTON <UN> Cover illustrations: Portal: entrance to the Bethelhem Adit, the main entrance to the Santa Barbara Mines (front cover), View on the Huancavelica (back cover). Photos by the author. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Robins, Nicholas A., 1964- author. Title: Santa Bárbara’s legacy : an environmental history of Huancavelica, Peru / by Nicholas A. Robins. Description: Leiden ; Boston : Brill, 2017. | Series: Brill’s series in the history of the environment, ISSN 1876-6595 ; volume 5 | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017008349 (print) | LCCN 2017011168 (ebook) | ISBN 9789004343795 (E-book) | ISBN 9789004339781 (hardback : acid-free paper) Subjects: LCSH: Huancavelica (Peru)--Environmental conditions. | Mercury mines and mining--Environmental aspects--Peru--Huancavelica--History. | Mercury mines and mining--Health aspects--Peru--Huancavelica--History. | Indians, Treatment of--Peru--Huancavelica--History. | Environmental degradation--Peru--Huancavelica--History. | Hazardous wastes--Peru--Huancavelica--History. Classification: LCC GE160.P4 (ebook) | LCC GE160.P4 R63 2017 (print) | DDC 363.17/91--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017008349 Typeface for the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic scripts: “Brill”. See and download: brill.com/brill-typeface. issn 1876-6595 (hardback) isbn 978-90-04-33978-1 (e-book) isbn 978-90-04-34379-5 Copyright 2017 by Koninklijke Brill nv, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill nv incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Hes & De Graaf, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Rodopi and Hotei Publishing. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill nv provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, ma 01923, usa. Fees are subject to change. This book is printed on acid-free paper and produced in a sustainable manner. <UN> This book is dedicated to the residents of Huancavelica, and especially to the families who have supported and participated in the field research upon which much of this work is based. ⸪ <UN> <UN> Contents Acknowledgements ix Glossary xi Introduction 1 1 Huaca-villca: From Geological Formation to Spanish Conquest 21 2 The Pachacuti: Colonization, Catastrophe and the Rise of Mercury 36 3 “A Horrible Business”: The Mita 73 4 The Bourbon Era: Reform and Resentment 96 5 “They All Come to Die”: Mining, Mishaps and Mercurialism 108 6 Desuetude, Decay and Neglect: The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries 141 Epilogue 155 Bibliography 165 Appendix 199 Table 1  Total mercury (Hg) in soil in mg/kg remedial investigation Huancavelica, Peru 199 Table 2  Total mercury in Earthen homes (dust, walls, floors, and vapor) remedial investigation Huancavelica, Peru 201 Table 3  Mercury, Arsenic and Lead in Huancavelica and area rock samples 2015 pilot study Huancavelica, Peru 2015 pilot study Huancavelica, Peru 204 Table 4  Food stock, water, and sediment sample results 2016 pilot study Huancavelica, Peru 206 Table 5  Residential vapor results 2015 pilot study Huancavelica, Peru 208 <UN> viii Contents Table 6  Soil sample results using X-ray florescence 2016 field event Huancavelica, Peru 209 Table 7  Total mercury in fish tissue 2016 field event Huancavelica, Peru 212 Table 8  Residential sample results using X-ray fluorescence 2016 field event Huancavelica. Peru 213 Index 215 <UN> Acknowledgements I am deeply indebted to many people who have provided invaluable support and insights as I researched and wrote this book. My interest in Huancavelica’s environmental history, and the toxic legacy with which it is burdened, was stimulated by my colleague Rubén Darío Espinoza Gonzales, ma. With his gen- erous spirit and the keen eye of an archaeologist, he first brought the issue of heavy metal contamination in Huancavelica’s earthen homes to my attention, and has been involved in this research ever since. Central to the process which has unfolded has been Dr. Máximio Enrique Ecos Lima, whose commitment to public health is matched by his expertise, organizational ability, and unflag- ging energy. Likewise, Bryn Thoms, RG, has played a vital and pivotal role in the field research which inform this work. Indefatigable, enthusiastic and precise, Bryn embraces, and overcomes, the challenges that field work presents. More- over, he has taken the lead in preparing Huancavelica’s remedial investiga- tion and related reports, and painstakingly assembled the tables which form the appendix of this work. Also a key member of our field research team is Dr. William E. Brooks, whose acumen and perspective have enriched the ex- perience in many ways. All of these colleagues have been instrumental in developing our understanding of Huancavelica’s current heavy metals contam- ination. Not only does their knowledge inform this book, but their dedication, compassion, and curiousity bring a wonderful and collegial spirit to our work. In the Office of Epidemiology of Huancavelica’s Zacarías Correa Valdivia Hospital, I have also been immensely fortunate to be able to rely on Isidora Cauchos, Elsa Matamoros, Vilma Cauchos, Javier Quezada, Jorge Moreira Tora and Yolanda Castellares Aramburú for crucial and consistent community out- reach and logistical support in the field. Their intimate knowledge of, concern for, and commitment to the people of Huancavelica is inspiring. Likewise, I would like to thank the Directors of the Hospital, Dr. Wendy Pompilio and Dr. Julio Álvarez, for their support of this research. At the National University of Huancavelica, Dr. Nicasio Valencia Mamani, Dr. Zeida Patricia Hoces La Rosa, and Dr. Rossibel Muñoz de la Torre have of- fered unceasing support for this research, and have contributed greatly to a wider public understanding of legacy contamination issues in Huancavelica. Similarly, Dr. Pedro de la Cruz, Dr. Jesús Mery Arias Huánuco, Dr. Ruggerths de la Cruz and Dr. Omar Siguas have played important roles in broadening awareness of environmetal issues in the city. Also in Peru, I woud like to thank Dr. Paulo Vilca and Barbara Fraser, who have so often provided welcome advice and insights as I prepared this work. <UN> x Acknowledgements I would also like to express my gratitude to Dr. Robert Robins for comments on an earlier draft of this book, and to my colleagues at North Carolina State University (ncsu), Dr. David Zonderman, Dr. Steven Vincent, Dr. Matthew Booker and Dr. Richard Slatta for their interest in, and support of, my research. I am also grateful for the support of Ms. Sydney Thompson and the exceptional staff of the Interlibrary Loan Department at the D.H. Hill Library at ncsu for their diligent assistance in obtaining obscure publications. Similarly, I am in- debted to Mr. Edwin Diáz, Director of Research and Bibliographic Services at the National Library of Peru, who kindly facilitated my research there. Earlier research related to this volume was enabled by an Oak Ridge Insti- tute for Science and Education Fellowship at the Environmental Protection Agency, for which I am especially indebted to Dr. John Vandenberg. Similarly, Dr. Nicole Hagan, Dr. Heileen Hsu Kim, Dr. George Woodall and Dr. Daniel Richter have all played important roles in the research upon which this work is based, for which I am grateful. Similarly, I am thankful for the support provided by Kendall Brown, Judith Teran Ríos, Rubén Julio Ruíz Ortíz, Joaquín Loayza Valda, Maria del Carmen Martínez López, Alvaro López Donoso, Leonor Fer- rufino Fernández, Oscar Hurtado Borja, Cecilia Mardoñez Barrero, Ana María Nava, María Renee Pareja Vilar, José Antonio Fuertes López, Silvia Flores, Luis Tórrez Ameller and Sheila Beltrán Lopéz. I would also like to thank Aleks Pluskowski, Wendel Scholma and Anita Op- dam at Brill Publishers for the opportunity to work with them as this project has progressed through the review and publicaton process. I am especially grateful for the unceasing support for, and encouragement of, this project provided by my wife and collaborator, Dr. Susan Halabi. Most of all, I would like to thank the individuals who have opened their earthen homes to us as part of our field work, and patiently allowed us to chip away samples of their walls and floors for analysis. Their kindness is exemplary, and their suffering unjust. While I am grateful to all, any errors or omissions in this work remain my own. <UN>