Project Gutenberg's Salvador of the Twentieth Century, by Percy F. Martin This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: Salvador of the Twentieth Century Author: Percy F. Martin Release Date: March 9, 2014 [EBook #45102] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY *** Produced by Adrian Mastronardi, Julia Neufeld and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY WORKS BY PERCY F. MARTIN, F.R.G.S. ———— MEXICO OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY With Map, and more than 100 Illustrations. 2 Vols. Demy 8vo. 30s. net. "Will take its place as a standard work of reference on the country."—Truth. PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY With Map, and 43 Illustration. I Vol. 15s. net. SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY With Map, and 48 Illustrations. 1 Vol. 15s. net. LONDON : EDWARD ARNOLD colours "THE COLOURS." THE SALVADOREAN FLAG, SUPPORTED BY CADETS OF THE SCHOOL FOR CORPORALS AND SERGEANTS. SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY BY PERCY F. MARTIN, F.R.G.S. AUTHOR OF "THROUGH FIVE REPUBLICS OF SOUTH AMERICA," "MEXICO OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY," "PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY," ETC. NEW YORK LONGMANS, GREEN & CO., LONDON: EDWARD ARNOLD 1911 [All rights reserved] PREFACE "And so I penned It down, until at last it came to be, For length and breadth, the bigness which you see." Bunyan: Apology for his Book. While it is quite reasonable to hope for a consistent improvement among the Central American nations, and as easy to discern the extent of amelioration which has already occurred, it is necessary to bear in mind some of the causes which have hitherto conduced to the turbulence and the tragedies which have characterized government by some of these smaller Latin Republics. Many writers, who can know but little of the Spanish race, have attributed the early failures of the States which broke away from the Motherland, not only to lack of stability, but to a radical psychological defect in the national character. This is a decided mistake, for the Spanish people, both in their individual and in their collective character, are fully as capable of exercising the rights, and of enjoying rationally the benefits, of self-government as any other nation of the world. The patriots and heroes who distinguished themselves in the early days of these young Republics, while themselves descendants of the Spaniards, generally speaking, and having only in a few cases Indian blood in their veins, had to combat against all the ambition and avarice, all the pride and prejudices, of the Church-ridden land which had set its grip upon New Spain, and meant, if possible, to keep it there. But it was not possible, and in a few decades was witnessed their complete expulsion as rulers from the countries which had been won by the flower of Spain's soldiery, and lost by the exercise of Spain's oppression and greed. While the early history of the Latin-American Republics contains much to distress, and even to depress, the reader, it is impossible to avoid paying a tribute to the band of gallant men who fought so desperately in the cause of freedom, and eventually won it. It is not just to say, as so many historians have said, that the highest incentives of these men to action were the favours of artificial and hereditary greatness, with the accumulation, by whatsoever means, of that wealth by which such favours might be purchased. Undoubtedly some mercenary motives were at work, as they usually are in political upheavals of this nature. Does anyone imagine, for instance, during the disturbances which occurred in Mexico early in the present year, and which were personally assisted by United States citizens, that low mercenary motives were lacking? Does anyone imagine that the numerous North American filibusters who took part in the fighting, first on the Texas borders, and then in Mexico itself, had any idea of assisting a persecuted people to free themselves from the yoke of a tyrant? Or was it not the glamour of golden lucre to be paid to them, and the promise of the much- coveted land across the Rio Grande del Norte, that impelled these young Yankees to throw in their lot with the rebels, trusting to their own complacent Government at Washington to see them through—as it actually did—any trouble which might happen to them if they proved to be upon the losing side? It would perhaps be equally correct to describe the early Spanish conquerors as greedy adventurers, since they never had any ideas of benefiting the countries or the people whom they afflicted so sorely. It is true that they encountered fearful dangers, displayed unheard-of bravery, overturned empires, and traversed with bloody steps an entire continent; but it was to aggrandize the Crown of Spain and to fill their own empty pockets with golden spoil, which, once secured, witnessed the fulfilment of their ambitions. It was, moreover, from this veritable horde of greedy tyrants that in later days the peoples of these nations sought to obtain, and finally did obtain, their freedom; their experiences of the Spanish Viceroys, with their courts more brilliant and more corrupt than that at Madrid itself; the persecutions of the Church, which has left a record in Latin-America more bloody and more barbarous than even in Europe; the deafness shown by the Spanish Crown whenever an appeal for consideration or clemency was addressed to it—all these things conduced to that upheaval which has taken over one hundred years to consummate and fructify. It was, then, against all this that the people of Central America were called upon to fight. Can anyone be surprised at the demoralization which occurred in their own ranks when their efforts to secure their freedom from Spain were once crowned with success? History shows many other such instances; indeed, bad as is the record of the earliest days of Latin-American self-government, it by no means stands without parallel. The objects—beyond a desire to be free from the brutal tyranny of the Spanish Viceroys—of the Latin-American revolutionists were never very clearly defined or well understood. Neither was any preconceived or organized plan ever made or carried out in connection with the French Revolution. Some historians are of opinion that the revolutionists of Central America originally contemplated the establishment of an independent Kingdom or Monarchy which should comprise the ancient Vice-Royalty, or, as it was called, the "Kingdom of Guatemala." But there is little evidence that any such notion was generally popular. Among the body of office-seekers and hangers-on of royal Courts it may, of course, have been regarded with favour. But the Provisional Junta, which was convoked immediately after the separation from Spain, showed a great majority of Liberals, who, in spite of the pressure brought to bear upon them, and the personal danger in which they stood, proceeded boldly to administer the oath of absolute independence, and to convoke an assembly of patriots which should organize the country on the basis of Republican institutions. The effort which was made later on through French machinations to establish a monarchy in Mexico failed dismally, as had the previous efforts put forward by the Mexicans themselves, when Iturbide was made—or, to be more correct, made himself—Emperor for a very brief period. [vi] [vii] [viii] The people of Central America were but few in number, and were widely distributed over the face of the country. It took several weeks to get into communication with some of the outlying districts, and the diffusion of the newly-created voters prevented them from becoming in any way a united people, or even cognizant of what was being done in their name. In fact, while anxiously awaiting the intelligence that their Junta was about to issue the long-looked-for Republican Charter, the people of Salvador received the startling and disastrous news that their country was to be incorporated into the Mexican Empire. They had been basely betrayed, and it is small wonder that they stood aghast at the colossal nature of that betrayal. Terrible indeed was the position for the newly-arisen Republic of Salvador. The men whom they had sent to attend the Junta at Guatemala City were met and overawed by armed bands; their deliberations were forcibly interrupted and suspended; some of them, such as Bedoya, Maida, and others, were ruthlessly assassinated, while their own leader and President of the Provisional Junta, one Gainza, turned traitor and went over to the enemy under promise of a high post in the new royal Government. Salvador was the nearest province to Guatemala, and the centre of Liberalism. It was not long before the patriots of this country took up arms in the defence of their newly-acquired freedom, and when they did theirs was practically the first battle which was fought upon Central American territory by Central Americans among themselves. Unfortunately, it was by no means the last; and history bristles with instances of terrible internecine warfare—of father arrayed against son, brother against brother, and of whole families, once united in bonds of love, wrenched asunder, never again to be reconciled this side of the grave. For years following, the soil of this beautiful land was drenched with human blood, its energies crippled, its resources abandoned. Are we justified in supposing that the end has come? I verily believe that, if it has not actually arrived, it is at least in sight. It must be remembered that the people of Central America are no longer an uneducated and unduly excitable race, except, perhaps, where their personal honour and independence are concerned; they possess an exceedingly clear and precise knowledge of their prospective or immediate requirements; they have as enlightened leaders among them as ever their powerful Northern neighbour possessed or possesses: all that they ask, and all that they should be granted, is the freedom to manage their own affairs in their own way and in their own time. A well-known writer upon Central America, who visited these countries some five-and-fifty years ago, declared: "Even as it was no one, whatever his prejudices, could fail to perceive the advance in the manners and customs, and the change in the spirit, of the people of Central America during the ten years of freedom which the Constitution secured." If that was true then, it is doubly, trebly true to-day, when education and foreign travel have served to open the minds and broaden the tolerance of these people, who may reasonably be permitted, and even earnestly encouraged, to work out their own salvation. By free and unrestricted intercourse with the nations of the world this can best be effected, and day by day is proving the truth of the saying of Dr. Johnson: "The use of travelling is to regulate imagination by reality, and, instead of thinking how things may be, see them as they are." October, 1911. CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGES Discovery of Salvador—Scenery—Volcanoes—Separation of Salvador from Spanish dominion—Central American Confederation—Attempts to reconstruct it—General Barríos—Lake Ilopango—Earthquake results—Remarkable phenomena—Public roads—Improvement under Figueroan Government 1-12 CHAPTER II Government—Executive power—Chamber of Congress—The Cabinet—Justice—The courts—Prisons and prisoners—Employment and treatment—Police force—How distributed—Education—Colleges and schools —State-aided education—Teaching staffs—Primary education—Posts and telegraphs—Improved interstate parcels post 13-35 CHAPTER III Biographical—The President, Dr. Manuel E. Araujo—The ex-President, General Figueroa—The Cabinet—Dr. don Francesco Dueñas, Minister for Foreign Affairs—Dr. don Teodosio Corranza, Home Affairs—Dr. Gustavo Baron, Public Instruction—Ingeniero Peralta Lagos—Dr. Castro V.—Don Eusebio Bracamonte— Don Miguel Dueñas—Department of Agriculture—Señor Carlos Garcia Prieto, Finance and Public Credit 36-48 CHAPTER IV [ix] [x] [xi] Government finances—London Market appreciation of Salvador bonds—History of foreign debt—Salvador Railway security—Central American Public Works Company—Changing the guarantee—Financial conditions to-day—Public debt at end of 1909—Budget for 1910-11—Small deficit may be converted into surplus—Summary 49-60 CHAPTER V Salvador versus Honduras and Nicaragua—Attitude of the President—Proclamation to the people—Generals Rivas and Alfaro—Invasion of Salvador—Ignominious retreat of enemy—Conciliatory conduct of General Figueroa—Character of Salvadorean people—Treachery of Zelaya 61-73 CHAPTER VI Outbreak of hostilities between Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Guatemala—Discreditable conduct of Nicaragua proved—Failure of United States and Mexican intervention—Dignified and loyal attitude of General Figueroa—Warning to Honduras—President Davila used as Zelaya's cat's-paw—The former's subsequent regret—Central American Court of Justice trial of claim for damages and result of judgment 74-85 CHAPTER VII The Army—Division of forces—Active reserve—Auxiliary—Republic's fighting strength—Military education— Strict training—Excellent discipline—Schools and polytechnics—Manual exercise—Workshops and output —Economies in equipments—Garrison services—Barracks—Destruction of Zapote Barracks—New constructions at Capital, Santa Ana, Santa Tecla, Sitio-del-Niño, Ahuachapán, Cojutepeque, San Miguel— Annual expenditure 86-95 CHAPTER VIII British Minister to Salvador—Lionel Edward Gresley Carden—British Legation hospitality—Mrs. Carden— Government indifference to valuable services—British Vice-Consul—No report for twenty years—Foreign Office neglect—United States Minister—Valuable trade information from American Legation— Salvadorean relations with Washington 96- 109 CHAPTER IX United States information for traders—Improved Consular services—United States and Salvador Government— Bureau of Pan-American Republics—Mr. Mark J. Kelly—Exceptional services—The American Minister, Major W. and Mrs. Heimké—Salvadorean Minister to U.S.A., Señor Federico Mejía—Central American Peace Conference and the United States 110- 119 CHAPTER X Latin-American trade and British diplomacy—Serious handicap inflicted by the British Government—Sacrificing British interests—Why British trade has been lost to Salvador—United States trade with Salvador— German competition—Teutonic characteristics—Britain's free trade principles—Severe American rivalry— United States Steel Company's methods 120- 136 CHAPTER XI British trade declines—Suggested remedy—Distributing centres—Trading companies and branches— Unattractive cheap goods—Former hold on Salvadorean markets—Comparative statistics between Great Britain, Germany, and the United States—Woollen and cotton goods—Absence of British bottoms from Salvadorean ports—Markets open to British manufacturers—Agricultural implements 137- 149 CHAPTER XII British fire apparatus—Story of a British installation—Coffee and sugar machinery—Cane-mills—Fawcett, Preston and Co.'s installations—High reputation enjoyed by British firms—United States coffee equipment —German competition—Methods of German commercial travellers—Openings for British trade—Effect of Panama Canal—Libel upon Salvador manufacturers—Salvador Chamber of Commerce 150- 165 CHAPTER XIII Systems of business—Long credits—British and United States methods versus German—Making "good" stock losses—Question of exchange—Effect upon business—Drafts and speculators—Customary terms of payment—Central American banks as agents—Prominent Salvadorean banks—The Press of the Republic —Prominent newspapers—Some of their contributors—Central American Press Conference 166- 180 CHAPTER XIV [xii] [xiii] Mining—Ancient workings—Precious metals found—Copper deposits—Iron ores—Treatment of ores in England—Difficulties of transport—Some deceased authorities—Mines in operation—Butters' Salvador mines—History of undertaking—Large profits earned—Directorial policy—Machinery and equipment— Butters' Divisadero Mines—Butters' cyaniding plant 181- 195 CHAPTER XV Transportation—Salvador Railway Company—Early construction—Gauge—Bridges—Locomotives—Rolling- stock—Personnel of railway—Steamship service—Extensions—Increasing popularity—Exchange and influence on railway success—Importers versus planters—Financial conditions—Projected extensions— Geological survey—Mr. Minor C. Keith's Salvador concession 196- 215 CHAPTER XVI Ports and harbours—La Unión—Population—Railway extensions—Lack of British bottoms—Carrying trade— H.B.M. Vice-Consul—Port of Triunfo—Improving the entrance—Proposed railway—Acajutla—Loading and unloading cargoes—Proposed improvements—Salvador Railway connections—La Libertad— Commandante and garrison—Loading and unloading cargoes—Cable station and the service provided by Government—The staff of operators 216- 227 CHAPTER XVII Agriculture—Government support and supervision—Annual productions—Agricultural schools—Cattle-breeding —Coffee—Sugar—Tobacco—Forestry—Rice—Beans—Cacao—Balsam—Treatment by natives 228- 246 CHAPTER XVIII Departments: Capital cities—Population—Districts—Salvador Department—City of San Salvador—Situation— Surroundings—Destruction in 1854 by earthquake—Description of catastrophe—Loss of life actually small —Evacuation of city—Recuperative faculty of the people 247- 255 CHAPTER XIX City of San Salvador—San Salvador as place of residence—Theatres—Parks—Streets—Hotels—Domestic servants—Hospitality of residents—Societies and associations—Educational establishments—Government buildings—Religion and churches—Casino—Hospitals and institutions—Disastrous conflagrations—Public monuments 256- 275 CHAPTER XX Department of Chalatenango—Rich agricultural territories—Annual fair—Generally prosperous conditions— Department of Cuscutlán—City of Cojutepeque—Industries—Cigar factories—Volcanoes—Lake of Cojutepeque—Department of Cabañas—Scenic features—Feast of Santa Barbara—Department of San Vicente—Public buildings and roads 276- 286 CHAPTER XXI Department of La Libertad—Physical characteristics—Balsam Coast—Santa Tecla—Department of Sonsonate —Life and hotels—Department of Ahuachapán—City of Ahuachapán—Public buildings and baths— Projected railway extension—Department of Santa Ana—Chief city—Generally prosperous conditions 287- 299 CHAPTER XXII Department of La Paz—Characteristics—Zacatecoluca—Population—Former proportions—Districts—Towns —Principal estates—Santiago—Nonualco—San Juan Nonualco—Climate—Water-supply—Santa Maria Ostuma—Mercedes la Ceiba—San Pedro Mashuat—Some minor estates—Small property holdings 300- 305 CHAPTER XXIII Department of San Miguel—Postless coast—Indigo plantations—City of San Miguel—Cathedral—Water-supply —Archæological interests—Projected railway connections 306- 310 Department of Morazán—City of Gotéra—Mountains and fertile plains—Agricultural produce 310- 311 Department of La Unión—Boundaries—Scenery—Guascorán River—Industries—Commerce 311- 313 Department of Usulután—Physical characteristics—Volcanic curiosities—Surrounding villages—Populations— El Triunfo—Santiago de Maria 313- 316 Conclusion 317- 320 [xiv] Index 321- 328 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FACING PAGE "The Colours" Frontispiece Views on New National Road, between San Vicente and Ilopango 8 H. E. Dr. Manuel Enrique Araujo, President of the Republic of Salvador 1911-1915 18 The 3rd Company, Sergeants' School, in Review Order 28 Company in Line, Sergeants' School 28 Section of Riflemen kneeling, Sergeants' School 28 General Fernando Figueroa, President of the Republic of Salvador 1907-1911 38 Dr. Artúro Ramón Ávila, Consul-General for the Republic of Salvador to Great Britain, appointed May, 1911 46 Artillery on Parade-Ground, San Salvador Barracks 60 Colonel's Quarters, School of Sergeants 70 Officers' Club-Room, School of Sergeants 70 Penitentiary at San Salvador 78 Officers' Club-Room, Military Polytechnic School 78 Colonel, Adjutant, and Captains of Company 86 Cadet Corps, School of Sergeants 86 Mr. Lionel Edward Gresley Carden, C.M.G., H.B.M. Minister-Resident at Salvador (as well as at Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Honduras) 98 Front of Sergeants' School, San Salvador 108 Typical Street in San Salvador, showing Style of One-Storey Houses 108 Mr. Mark Jamestown Kelly, F.R.G.S., for Fifteen Years Consul-General in Great Britain for Salvador (retired June, 1911), and Chairman of the Salvador Railway Company, Limited 114 Side-view of "El Rotulo" Bridge 118 The National Road leading to La Libertad, showing "El Rotulo" Bridge 118 Entrance to Avenida La Ceiba at San Salvador 130 The Famous Avenida under Construction 130 View of the New Avenida leading to San Salvador, taken from the North 140 View of the Picturesque Town of Marcala 150 El Parque Barríos, one of the most Beautiful Public Resorts in Central America 162 Government Building ("Casa Blanca"), San Salvador 178 Campo de Marte (Racecourse), San Salvador 178 1. View of Butters' Divisadero Mines, Department of Morazán, Salvador 188 2. Butters' Salvador Mines, Santa Rosa, Department of La Unión, Salvador 188 Map of the Salvador Railway 198 Deck Bridge on Salvador Railway 206 Station Building at Santa Ana on the Salvador Railway 206 Mr. Charles T. Spencer, General Manager of the Salvador Railway, appointed May, 1911 222 Don Juan Amaya, Governor of the Department of Cuscutlán 222 Native Habitation in the Hot Country 232 Native making Sugar from a Primitive Wooden Mill 232 [xv] [xvi] A Street in Sonsonate (Calle de Mercado) 242 Type of "Quinta" or Country-House in Santa Tecla (New San Salvador) 242 Public Park in San Salvador, where Throngs of Well-dressed People assemble in the Evening to listen to an Excellent Military Band 258 New National Palace at San Salvador 268 Theatre at Santa Ana, Department of Santa Ana 268 Cathedral of Sonsonate, Department of Sonsonate 274 Public Park at Cojutepeque, Department of Cuscutlán 284 Barracks at Cojutepeque, Department of Cuscutlán 284 Municipal Palace at Sonsonate, Department of Sonsonate 294 Group of Salvadoreans of the Superior Working-Class 314 The "Stately" Offices of His Britannic Majesty's Vice-Consul at La Unión, one of the Principal Ports in Salvador 306 Barracks at Santa Tecla (New San Salvador) 306 Map of the Republic of Salvador At end SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY CHAPTER I Discovery of Salvador—Scenery—Volcanoes—Topographical features—Mountain ranges—Natural fertility —Lake Ilopango—Earthquake results—Remarkable phenomena—Disappearance of islands—Public roads improvement and construction under Figueroa government. It was in the year 1502 that Christopher Columbus, that remarkable and noble-minded Genoese, undeterred by the shameful treatment meted out to him by his adopted countrymen in Spain, sailed away to the East Indies in search of a new passage; and it was in consequence of the mutiny among his ruffianly followers that, putting into Hispaniola, Salvador was discovered. For something over 300 years Spain ruled, and ruled brutally; the history of her government here—as elsewhere through Latin America—being one long series of oppressions, cruelties and injustices practised upon the unfortunate natives and the Spanish residents alike. The ill-treatment extended to Columbus is but a case in point. Lying on the Pacific Ocean, between the parallels of 13° and 14° 10' N. latitude, and the meridians of 87° and 90° W. longitude, Salvador has a coast-line of about 160 miles, extending from the Bay of Fonseca to the River Paz, which is one of the boundaries between this Republic and the neighbouring State of Guatemala. While Salvador is the smallest of the five different countries forming the Central American group, boasting of but 9,600 square miles, it not alone possesses some of the richest and most beautiful territory, but has the densest population as well as the most considerable industry and the most important commerce. Very remarkable are the topographical features of Salvador, and very profound is the impression created upon the traveller's mind as he approaches it for the first time through the beautiful Bay of Fonseca, with its wealth of tropical scenery, the romantic islands and the background of noble mountains, afforested to the tops of their numerous peaks, and filling the mind with awe at the memory of their numerous destructive eruptions through the centuries. The coast here presents, for the greater part, a belt of low-lying, richly wooded alluvial land, varying in width from ten to twenty miles. Behind this, and displaying an abrupt face seawards, rises a noble range of coast mountains—or rather a broad plateau—having an average elevation of 2,000 feet, and relieved by numerous volcanic peaks. It is not the height of these mountains that lends so much dignity and beauty, for, as mountains go, they would be considered as anything but remarkable. It is their extraordinary formation, their almost terrible proximity, and their long and terrifying history, which challenge the attention of the individual who gazes upon them for the first time. Between the range and the great primitive chain of the Cordilleras beyond, lies a broad valley varying in width from twenty to thirty miles, and being over 100 miles in length. Very gently the coastal plateau subsides towards this magnificent valley, which is drained and abundantly watered by the River Lempa, and is unsurpassed for natural beauty and fertility by any equal extent of country in the tropics. The northern border of this terrestrial paradise—so far as the eye can judge it—rests upon the flank of the mountains of Honduras, which tower skywards about it to the height of 6,000 to 8,000 feet, broken and rugged to the very [1] [2] [3] summits. To the south of the Lempa, however, the country rises from the immediate and proper valley of the river, first in the form of a terrace with a very abrupt face, and afterward by a gradual slope to the summit of the plateau. Then comes another curious physical feature—a deep, green, and wooded basin of altogether unique scenic beauty and fertility, formed by the system of numerous small rivers which rise in the western part of the country around the feet of the volcano Santa Ana, falling finally into the sea near Sonsonate. This formation is in the shape of a triangle, the base resting on the sea, and the apex defined by the volcano. A second and even a larger basin is that of the River San Miguel, lying transversely to the valley of the River Lempa, in the eastern division of the State, and separated only by a number of smaller detached mountains from the Bay of Fonseca. Approaching the Salvadorean coast upon any of the steamers which run there, one is confronted with no fewer than eleven great volcanoes, which literally bristle along the east of the plateau which has been mentioned as intervening between the valley of the Lempa and the sea. As a boy and a keen philatelist, I always wondered why Salvador postage-stamps had a group of three active and terrible-looking volcanoes upon their faces. When I visited that country for the first time I understood. The long row of sentinels, grim, yet extraordinarily beautiful, form a right line from north- west to south-east, accurately coinciding with the great line of volcanic action which is clearly defined from Mexico to Peru. Commencing on the side of Guatemala their order is as follows: Apaneca, Santa Ana, Izalco, San Salvador, San Vicente, Usulután, Tecapa, Zacatecoluca, Chinameca, San Miguel, and Conchagua. There are others of lesser note, besides a family of extinct volcanoes, whose craters are sometimes filled with water, as well as numerous volcanic vents or "blow-holes," which the natives not inaptly call infiernillos, i.e., "little hells!" Even the apparently harmless and beautiful island of Tigre, which occupies the centre of the Bay of Fonseca, and a veritable picture of scenic grandeur, is a slumbering volcano, and has a history at once interesting and terrifying. The memorable Cosieguina, El Viejo, Felica, and Momotombo, in Nicaragua, face El Tigre on the other side. The most beautiful of the Republic's many volcanic lakes is that of Ilopango, on the borders of which is situated the village of the same name, with a scattered population of between 1,400 and 1,500 people. The lake is some 6·85 miles long from west to east, about 5·11 miles wide, with an area of 25·1 square miles and a developed shore-line of 28·8 miles. The late President of the Republic, General Fernando Figueroa, was kind enough to place a steam-launch at my disposal, which enabled me to see the lake under the most favourable auspices, and in company with his nephew, Señor Angulo, I spent several interesting hours upon its calm, deep green surface. This lake has been the scene of numerous remarkable volcanic phenomena, the most recent of which took place a few weeks after my visit, and resulted in the centre islands, which were one of its most charming features, completely disappearing beneath the surface of its waters. In January, 1880, the lake had also been the scene of a severe earthquake, which shook the entire surrounding country. Upon this occasion the waters suddenly rose about 4 feet above their usual level, and, flowing into the bed of the Jibóa—a stream which forms the usual outlet from the lake—increased it to the proportions of a broad and raging river, which soon made for itself a channel from 30 to 35 feet in depth. A rapid subsidence in the level of the lake was thus produced, and by March 6 in the same year the surface was 34 feet below its maximum. It was then that the rugged and stony island, about 500 feet in diameter, and which I have mentioned above, suddenly rose over the waters, reaching to a height of 150 feet above the level of the lake and being surrounded by several smaller islands, the waters all around becoming intensely hot. Previous to this extraordinary phenomenon, the bottom of the lake, so I was informed, had been gradually rising, and so violent was the flood when it occurred, that the small village of Atuscatla, near the outlet, was entirely destroyed. Some years afterwards—namely, in February, 1892—while some severe earthquakes were taking place in Guatemala, their reflex was felt in the same spot—Atuscatla, on Lake Ilopango—Lieutenant Hill, who was then making investigations in Salvador on behalf of the United States Government, declaring that a shock was felt lasting fifteen seconds, and then continued with gradually decreasing force for a further one minute and five seconds. When I was a visitor to Ilopango, there were two extremely comfortable hotels to be found on the banks, both having some very convenient bathing facilities to offer, and each having a beautiful garden attached. During the hot season, and upon Sundays and all holidays, these hotels are crowded with visitors from San Salvador, who ride out in parties, there being no other mode of reaching the lake. The road is a truly beautiful one, travellers crossing numerous streams and passing through shady, blossom-covered woods, containing many magnificent trees. By moonlight this route appears remarkably picturesque, and many people prefer to make the journey thus. Ilopango is some four hours' ride from the capital, and the journey across the lake usually occupies another two or three hours in an electric or naphtha launch. The hotels and bathing establishments, however, are located upon the side of the lake nearest to San Salvador. The outline of the beautiful Ilopango Lake, when last surveyed, was quite accurately determined by means of intersections from the various topographical stations. Its surface in January, 1893, was found to be 1,370 feet (417·6 metres) above the sea. Its actual depth the surveyors had no means of ascertaining; its basin, however, is far below the general level of the surrounding ridges, which are all volcanic. Those to the north and east are formed of layers of sand and ashes partially compacted, yellowish in colour, and throwing out spurs towards the lake, terminating in steep bluffs. West of the lake the ground rises to the San Jacinto Hills; but the soft material composing it has been eroded into a maze of sharp ridges and deep gulches. The eastern hills are also broken into a succession of knife-like ridges. Professor Goodyear, a famous American geologist, has said that the southern hills consist entirely of volcanic materials, but are of a much harder and firmer structure than those of the north and east, being composed largely of conglomerates containing boulders well cemented together. The lake is situated upon the volcanic axis of the country, [4] [5] [6] [7] and has long been the seat of numerous earthquakes and active volcanic phenomena, the most violent of recent times being those of 1879 and 1880. According to the same Professor Goodyear, there was a series of earthquake shocks, some of great violence, extending from December 22 to January 12, 1880, followed by a period of quiet until the night of January 20, when, after a series of loud reports and explosions, followed by violent hissings and dense clouds of steam, a mass of volcanic rock rose from the centre of the lake to a height of 58 feet (17·7 metres). Previous to this the bottom of the lake had been gradually rising until January 11, and the waters had been lifted to maximum height of 5·2 feet above their usual level. This sudden rise converted the outlet from a small stream—not over 20 feet wide and a foot deep, and with a current of two or three miles per hour—into a raging torrent discharging as much water as a great river. So violent was the flood that the small village of Atuscatla, situated near the outlet, was as stated, destroyed, and the channel was so widened and deepened that the waters of the lake fell 38·6 feet (11·75 metres) from the highest point reached, or 33·4 feet (10·17 metres) below their original level. During the time of this flood the Rio Jibóa, which carries off the waters of the lake, was enormously swollen and became very muddy, and in the lower portion overflowed its banks, flooding broad tracts of the plain. By the middle of February, 1880, the lake adjusted itself to the new conditions, and since that time, until the visitation of last year (1910), there had been no great change in its level; the variations at present going on are due to the excess of precipitation during the rainy months over that which is prevalent in the dry season. Anyone who had seen Salvador, say, ten years ago, and who revisited it to-day, would assuredly be impressed by the great improvement which has taken place in, and the extension of, both the main and sub-roads of the Republic. Whereas in former times the roads were only passable in the dry season, and were even then very trying to travellers on account of the dust encountered, while in the wet season they became mere morasses, to-day they are in the majority of cases so well built and so carefully maintained that even in the wet season of the year it is quite possible to use them. This great improvement has been brought about mainly by the enterprise of the late President, General Fernando Figueroa, who evinced a keen and consistent interest in opening up new means of communication by making public roadways of enduring worth, his excellent work being actively continued by his present successor. Views View VIEWS ON NEW NATIONAL ROAD, BETWEEN SAN VICENTE AND ILOPANGO. The main routes of communication in Salvador run longitudinally through the country, from Rio Paz and the city of Ahuachapán on the west, to La Unión and the Rio Guascorán on the east. From this central line, which connects all the important cities and towns of the interior, other roads run out like spurs to the towns and the cities to the northward, or to those of the coast to the southward. Thus, from Santa Ana there is a road north to Metapán, and one south to [8] [9] Sonsonate and Acajutla. Ahuachapán also has a road to Sonsonate via Ataco and Apaneca, two towns which are located high up in the mountains. At Sitio de Niño, on the Salvador Railway line, there is a road northward to Opico. Here, also, the main road to the city of San Salvador divides, one branch going north to the volcano of that name, and the other to the south of it via the famous Guarumál Ravine and Santa Tecla. From the city of San Salvador there are roads north to Chalatenango via Tonacatepeque, and south to the port of La Libertad via Santa Tecla. Cojutepeque is connected by road to the towns of Ilobasco and Sensuntepeque to the north-east. San Vicente has a road to the port of La Libertad, running south-west via Zacatecoluca. At San Vicente the main east and west road separates, one branch going to the north of the Tecapa-San Miguel group of volcanoes, via the cities of Jucuapa and Chinameca to San Miguel, and the other south via the city of Usulután. San Miguel has several roads leading in all directions. There is one north to the town of Gotera, another north-east to the Mining District via Jocoró and Santa Rosa, which continues to the principal crossings of the Rio Guascorán; and there is yet another, running nearly due east to La Unión, on the Gulf of Fonseca. I was in the country while construction was proceeding in connection with the Ilopango-San Vicente road improvements, and I was much impressed with the thoroughness of the work being undertaken. The new construction was some 40 kilometres long by 61⁄2 to 7 metres in width (say 20 to 25 feet). It was commenced in 1906, and it will be finished by the end of next year (1912). It is estimated to cost not less than 350,000 pesos. It is a purely Government undertaking, and ranks as one of the most important highways in the Republic. At first over 250 men were employed, but as the work progressed this number was reduced to 200. The highest part of the road is cut through the side of the mountain at 210 metres (say 700 feet) above the shore of Lake Ilopango. The steepest gradient is 7 per cent., and the minimum radius 20 feet. The most expensive part was that between Kilometre 14 and Kilometre 13, where extremely hard rocks have had to be cut through. At one point ten men were engaged for a period of nine months upon the most difficult part, and they were suspended from above by ropes, in order to reach and to cut down the massive timber trees obstructing progress. The Chief Engineer engaged by the Government to undertake this contract is Señor Don Juan Luis Buerón, a German by birth, having seen the light at Königsberg; but he is a United States citizen by adoption. Señor Buerón is now seventy-eight years of age, and although he is getting rather beyond active hard work, his valuable experience and shrewd judgment are much appreciated by the Government in all such matters as road construction. He has built many public roads in North America, he told me, and was also responsible for laying the track of the Havana (Cuba) tramways. This interesting old engineer had also gained some experience in Mexico before the days of Maximilian (1857-1869). He now occupies a position of comfort, and enjoys the deep respect of the hundreds of peons who call him master. Señor Juan Buerón junior, the son, is an equally capable road engineer, and assists his father in his work for the Government of Salvador. Another road deserving of mention is that which has been put under the charge of the official engineer, Don Guillermo Quirós, and one which unites the town of Santiago-de-María with the port of Linares, on the River Lempa, passing through Alegría. The section from Santiago-de-María to Alegría has been completed, and it was officially inaugurated while I was in the Republic; the journey from Berlín to the River Lempa can now be continued with much greater celerity. Very considerable are the advantages that this highway has brought to that part of the country, in which are situated the most valuable coffee plantations, whose owners now find far greater conveniences for bringing the berry to the port of El Triunfo, since the road leading to this place has also been repaired and widened to facilitate the transit by beasts of burden. The official engineer, Don Manuel Aragón, has been occupied with the planning and opening of a road from Citalá, in the department of Chalatenango, to Metapán, in the department of Santa Ana. The road leading from this capital to the port of La Libertad is likewise the object of attention. The official engineer, Don Andrés Soriano, with a gang of foremen and labourers, have been working for several months past repairing it. This highroad continually needs very large sums of money for maintenance. The repairs which in former years have been carried out have proved anything but lasting, owing to the serious mistakes in construction of an engineer who put into practice certain untried experiments, which completely failed. It is necessary now to remedy this mistake, and drains and aqueducts have had to be constructed on the road where none previously existed, to avoid, in the rainy season, destruction by the strong currents of water rushing over it. The official engineer, Don Alberto Pinto, was occupied during a good part of the year 1908 upon road works, having made many alterations, improvements and widenings in the roads of the Departments of San Miguel, La Unión, Usulután, Chalatenango, Santa Ana and Cabañas. On the way from Mercedes to Jucuapa, and also upon the road to San Miguel, it is proposed to construct a bridge of stone and mortar, at the place called Barrancas de Jucuapa; the chief engineer, Señor Pinto, has already made an estimate and sent in the corresponding plans. The cost will amount to a little more or a little less than $10,000. CHAPTER II Early Days of independence—"Central American Federation"—Constitutional Presidents—Executive power —Chamber of Congress—The Cabinet—Justice—The courts—Prisons and prisoners—Employment and treatment—Police force—How distributed—Education—Colleges and schools—State-aided [10] [11] [12] [13] education—Teaching staffs—Primary education—Posts and telegraphs—Improved interstate parcels post. The breaking away from Spanish dominion (although the seeds of revolution were laid as far back as 1811) did not take place until ten years later, and coincided with the successful termination of the struggle for liberty which occurred in Mexico under the patriot priest Hidalgo. Salvador gained its freedom, comparatively speaking, without bloodshed; and on September 15, 1821, it was declared a free and independent State. In the year following an attempt was made to annex the country to the Mexican Empire, under the rule of the ambitious and unscrupulous Emperor Agustin Yturbide, during his very brief reign, in 1822. As history relates, this presumptuous Mexican was born in Valladolid (now known as Morelia) on September 27, 1783, and he was sentenced to death and shot on July 19, 1824. It is to the credit of Salvador that it was the one Central American State which firmly resisted the invasion of the Mexican troops; but in the end it had to submit to a far superior force, commanded by General Filisola, and was then formally incorporated into the Mexican Empire. This humiliation endured, however, for a very brief time, since in the following year Yturbide met his violent death, after which a Constitutional Convention was called, and in 1824 a Federal Republic was declared bearing the name of the "Central American Federation." This was composed of the five States—Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica—the first President being General Manuel José Arce. Party jealousies and personal ambitions, however, soon brought about disintegration, and in spite of the efforts of some far-seeing patriots, who considered that in union alone lay the hope of peace, security and prosperity for their country, the form of government proved wholly impracticable. Nevertheless it continued for a few years to struggle along, General Francisco Morazán, doing his best to maintain order and to save the union from disruption. Notwithstanding all his efforts, the Federation was dissolved in 1839, and the five States again became independent Sovereign Republics. Three years later General Morazán unwisely made another effort to reunite the countries; but his attempt was treacherously rewarded by a conspiracy against his life, followed by his execution in San José, Costa Rica, in the month of September, 1842. Since his death various attempts have been made from time to time, to reunite the several Republics, the last effort of this kind having been prosecuted by General Zelaya, perhaps one of the most unscrupulous and dishonest, as well as one of the cruellest, Spanish-Americans who has ever attained supreme power. Whatever chances of success a United Central America might have had, under the auspices of a Zelaya it could have never met with anything but failure. General Zelaya, in spite of frantic efforts to maintain his position, was himself chased from Nicaragua in 1909, and is now said to be living in Europe upon the proceeds of the money which he is declared to have filched from his country during his long and oppressive reign. In the year 1885, General Justo Rufino Barríos, President of Guatemala, had sought to accomplish what Morazán had failed to do; but his efforts ended equally in disaster. On August 13, 1886, the Constitution which is at present in force was promulgated, and General Menéndez was elected as first President under that Constitution by popular vote in 1887, for the term ending in 1890. He was succeeded by General Carlos Ezeta, who was inaugurated on March 1, 1891. The third President was General Rafael Gutierrez. Then followed General Tomás Regaládo; Don Pedro José Escalón; General Fernando Figueroa; and the ruling President, Doctor Manuel Enrique Araujo. The form of government in vogue is that of a free, sovereign and independent Republic—that is to say, democratic, elective, and representative. The Constitution now in existence is contained in a code of articles. The Government is divided into Legislative, Executive, and Judicial sections. The Legislative power is vested in the National Assembly, which is composed of one Chamber, and having the title of the National Chamber of Deputies. This consists of 42 members, three Deputies being elected for each Department by direct popular vote for a term of one year, the right to vote being vested in every male citizen who is over eighteen years of age. It is to be observed that every Salvadorean is not only privileged, but is compelled to vote, thus doing his duty to the State. The Executive consists of a President and a Vice-President, who are elected by popular vote for a term of four years. In addition to being Chief Magistrate, the President is also Commander-in-Chief of the Army. In the event of a failure to elect the Executive, a President is chosen by a majority of votes in the Congress from among the three candidates having polled the largest number of votes in the popular election. He is not eligible for re-election either as President or as Vice-President until four years shall have elapsed. The date of the Executive's inauguration is on March 1 following the election, which is usually held in the month of November. The administration of each of the fourteen different Departments is in the hands of a Governor, who is selected by the President from personal knowledge of both his capacity and temperament. Besides administering the civil affairs of the territory under his jurisdiction, this official is usually either a military man or one possessed of adequate military knowledge; and he is thus Commandant of the military of his Department. It was my pleasure to meet, and spend some considerable time in the company of, many of the Governors of the different Departments, and I was deeply impressed with their general thoroughness of purpose, their keen desire in all cases to further the interests of their Departments, and to apply to their benefit any and every advantage which could be adapted from the governments of other countries. The municipalities, on the other hand, are managed entirely by their own officials, all of whom are elected by the people themselves. The officials comprise an Alcade, or Mayor, a Syndic and several Regidores, or Aldermen, these being numbered according to the size of the population. A good deal of competition exists for office, and at the time of [14] [15] [16] [17] election much amusement is derived from watching the canvassing in progress. There is a decidedly healthy appearance of municipal enterprise in most of the towns of Salvador, and, taking these as a whole, they seem to be uncommonly well administered. In the accepted sense of the word, there is no real poverty, no slums, no crying "graft" scandal demanding redress, as in our much-vaunted civilization, and such charities as are rendered necessary in the form of hospital relief and medical attention are rendered cheerfully and as a matter of course, entailing neither a favour nor a dependence upon either party. In Salvador, as in all the Latin-American Republics, the President is a reality, and not a mere figure-head. He makes his presence felt, and yet, in a perfectly...