Safety Evaluation of Billboard Advertisements on Driver Behavior in Work Zones A thesis presented to the faculty of the Russ College of Engineering and Technology of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Science Patrick J. Fry May 2013 © 2013 Patrick J. Fry. All Rights Reserved. 2 This thesis titled Safety Evaluation of Billboard Advertisements on Driver Behavior in Work Zones by PATRICK J. FRY has been approved for the Department of Civil Engineering and the Russ College of Engineering and Technology by Deborah S. McAvoy Associate Professor of Civil Engineering Dennis Irwin Dean, Russ College of Engineering and Technology 3 ABSTRACT FRY, PATRICK J., M.S., May 2013, Civil Engineering Safety Evaluation of Billboard Advertisements on Driver Behavior in Work Zones (207 pp.) Director of Thesis: Deborah S. McAvoy While the number of fatal crashes occurring in work zones has been declining over the last few years, work zone safety is still considered to be a nationwide priority. Recently, a work zone safety campaign consisting primarily of billboard advertisements was found to be ineffective. Thus, a two-phase study was performed to determine how the billboards could be improved to communicate more effectively the campaign’s safety message to the public. The first phase consisted of a public opinion survey designed to determine the preferred background and text color combination for the advertisement. Survey responses were evaluated through statistical analyses and a yellow background with black text is recommended for use in future campaign billboards. The second phase consisted of a driving simulator study to examine the slogans and graphics used in the advertisement along with the placement and orientation of the billboard with respect to the driver. Driving performance and glance behaviors of the participants were monitored throughout the simulated drive to determine what effect the billboards had on their behavior. Based on statistical analyses of driving performance, no elements of the billboard advertisements were found to improve safety on the roadway. Glance behaviors were found to be significantly impacted by the presence of an advertisement, but were not impacted by any particular element. Furthermore, as drivers made long glances to the 4 billboards their ability to maintain lane position was negatively impacted. Ultimately, billboard advertisements should be used alongside other approaches to improve work zone safety through an effective campaign. 5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would first like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Deborah McAvoy, for her continued support and encouragement throughout my Master of Science program and into my professional career. I would not have succeeded in my graduate studies without her guidance. Next, I would like to thank my committee members, Dr. Eric Steinberg, Dr. Sang-Soo Kim, and Dr. Natalie Kruse Daniels, for their time and assistance with the completion of my thesis research. I would also like to thank my fellow researchers in the ORITE Safety and Human Factors Facility for their help in processing the data throughout this research. Finally, I would like to thank my family, fiancée, and friends for their constant love, encouragement, and support throughout my graduate and professional careers. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... 5 List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... 8 List of Figures ................................................................................................................... 10 Chapter 1: Introduction ..................................................................................................... 11 Chapter 2: Background ..................................................................................................... 14 2.1 Impact of Speeds in Work Zones ............................................................................ 14 2.2 Evaluating Safety Campaigns ................................................................................. 18 2.3 Use of Billboards in Safety Campaigns .................................................................. 22 2.4 Safety of Billboards ................................................................................................ 26 2.4.1 Impact on Glance Behavior ............................................................................. 26 2.4.2 Impact on Driving Performance ....................................................................... 37 Chapter 3: Public Survey Study ........................................................................................ 43 Chapter 4: Driving Simulator Study ................................................................................. 52 4.1 Selection of Methodology ....................................................................................... 52 4.2 Research Equipment Used ...................................................................................... 53 4.3 Institutional Review Board Process ........................................................................ 55 4.4 Design of Scenarios ................................................................................................ 57 4.4.1 Scenario #1 – Slogans ...................................................................................... 58 4.4.1 Scenario #2 – Graphics .................................................................................... 62 4.4.2 Scenario #3 – Placement and Orientation ........................................................ 63 4.5 Study Procedure ...................................................................................................... 65 4.6 Data Collection ....................................................................................................... 73 4.7 Sample Size Determination .................................................................................... 80 4.7.1 Determination for Speed .................................................................................. 81 4.7.2 Determination for Lane Position ...................................................................... 83 4.7.3 Determination for Acceleration and Deceleration ........................................... 84 4.7.4 Determination for Mean Fixation and Total Fixation ...................................... 85 7 4.7.5 Determination for Number of Fixations........................................................... 88 4.7.6 Determination for Proportion of Fixation Duration ......................................... 89 4.7.7 Final Sample Size Determination .................................................................... 91 Chapter 5: Statistical Methodology .................................................................................. 93 5.1 Statistical Tests for Public Survey Study ................................................................ 93 5.2 Statistical Tests for Driving Simulator Study ......................................................... 97 Chapter 6: Results ........................................................................................................... 111 6.1 Public Survey Study .............................................................................................. 111 6.1.1 Increase Awareness of Work Zones............................................................... 114 6.1.2 Increase Caution in Work Zones .................................................................... 118 6.1.3 Billboard Seen Best in Daylight .................................................................... 123 6.1.3 Billboard Seen Best at Nighttime .................................................................. 126 6.1.4 Overview of the Statistical Analyses of Survey Responses ........................... 130 6.2 Driving Simulator Study ....................................................................................... 131 6.2.1 Scenario #1 – Slogans .................................................................................... 134 6.2.2 Scenario #2 – Graphics .................................................................................. 142 6.2.3 Scenario #3 – Placement and Orientation ...................................................... 146 6.2.4 Impact of Long Glances on Safety ................................................................. 148 Chapter 7: Conclusions ................................................................................................... 152 7.1 Public Survey Study .............................................................................................. 152 7.2 Driving Simulator Study ....................................................................................... 155 7.3 Recommendations for Future Research ................................................................ 162 References ....................................................................................................................... 164 Appendix A: Public Survey Study Materials .................................................................. 169 Appendix B: IRB Documents ......................................................................................... 173 Appendix C: Billboard Advertisements Used in Simulator Study ................................. 200 Appendix D: Results of the Games-Howell Tests on the Data Collected in the Driving Simulator Study .............................................................................................................. 204 8 LIST OF TABLES Page Table 1: Background and text color combinations used in surveys.................................. 44 Table 2: Slogans used in Scenario #1 ............................................................................... 59 Table 3: Placement and orientation combinations used in Scenario #3 ............................ 63 Table 4: Initial sample size determination for speed ........................................................ 82 Table 5: Initial sample size determination for lane position ............................................. 83 Table 6: Initial sample size determination for acceleration .............................................. 85 Table 7: Initial sample size determination for mean fixation ........................................... 87 Table 8: Initial sample size determination for total fixation ............................................. 87 Table 9: Initial sample size determination for number of fixations .................................. 89 Table 10: Initial sample size determination for proportion of fixation duration .............. 90 Table 11: Summary of initial sample size determination ................................................. 91 Table 12: Results of z-test for total population on increased awareness of work zones 115 Table 13: Results of z-test by age group for increased awareness of work zones .......... 115 Table 14: Results of z-test by gender for increased awareness of work zones ............... 116 Table 15: Results of z-test by driving experience for increased awareness of work zones ......................................................................................................................................... 116 Table 16: Results of z-test by knowledge of rules for increased awareness of work zones ......................................................................................................................................... 118 Table 17: Results of z-test for total population on increased caution in work zones ..... 119 Table 18: Results of z-test by age group for increased caution in work zones ............... 120 Table 19: Results of z-test by gender for increased caution in work zones .................... 120 Table 20: Results of z-test by driving experience for increased caution in work zones . 121 Table 21: Results of z-test by knowledge of rules for increased awareness of work zones ......................................................................................................................................... 123 Table 22: Results of z-test for total population on billboard seen best in daylight ........ 124 Table 23: Results of z-test by age group for billboard seen best in daylight .................. 124 Table 24: Results of z-test by gender for billboard seen best in daylight ....................... 125 Table 25: Results of z-test by driving experience for billboard seen best in daylight .... 125 Table 26: Results of z-test for total population on billboard seen best at nighttime ...... 127 Table 27: Results of z-test by age group for billboard seen best at nighttime ................ 128 Table 28: Results of z-test by gender for billboard seen best at nighttime ..................... 128 Table 29: Results of z-test by driving experience for billboard seen best at nighttime .. 129 Table 30: Results of the one-way ANOVA tests on driver behavior in Pre-Work Zone of Scenario #1...................................................................................................................... 135 Table 31: Results of the one-way ANOVA tests on driver behavior in Advanced Warning Area of Scenario #1 ........................................................................................................ 139 Table 32: Results of the one-way ANOVA tests on driver behavior in Work Zone of Scenario #1...................................................................................................................... 140 Table 33: Results of the one-way ANOVA tests on driver behavior in Pre-Work Zone of Scenario #2...................................................................................................................... 143 9 Table 34: Results of the one-way ANOVA tests on driver behavior in Advanced Warning Area of Scenario #2 ........................................................................................................ 145 Table 35: Results of the one-way ANOVA tests on driver behavior in Work Zone of Scenario #2...................................................................................................................... 146 Table 36: Results of the one-way ANOVA tests on driver behavior in approaching the billboards in Scenario #3 ................................................................................................ 147 Table 37: Results of the one-way ANOVA tests on total variation in lane position while participants were glancing at the billboards by scenario ................................................ 150 10 LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1. Billboard advertisement used in Cleveland. ..................................................... 43 Figure 2. Driving simulator located in ORITE Safety and Human Factors Facility. ....... 54 Figure 3. Sample billboard advertisement used in Scenario #1. ...................................... 60 Figure 4. Work zone configuration used in Scenario #1. ................................................. 61 Figure 5. Example of a face model created using the faceLab 5 eye-tracking system. .... 70 Figure 6. Public survey responses by age group. ........................................................... 112 Figure 7. Proportions for the total population on increased awareness of work zones. . 114 Figure 8. Proportions for the total population on increased caution in work zones. ...... 119 Figure 9. Proportions for the total population on billboard seen best in daylight. ......... 123 Figure 10. Proportions for the total population on billboard seen best at nighttime. ..... 127 Figure 11. Mean values for lane position in the Pre-Work Zone of Scenario #1. .......... 137 Figure 12. Mean values for number of fixations in the Pre-Work Zone of Scenario #1. 138 Figure 13. Results of post-test questionnaire on recalling the slogans used. ................. 141