Essays in the Christian understanding of man 1 THE FELLOWSHIP OF ST ALBAN AND ST SERGIUS Printed by flPflflfc Parchment (Oxford) Ltd., 60 Hurst Street, Oxford From originals supplied by Publisher Sacrament and Image ESSAYS IN THE CHRISTIAN UNDERSTANDING OF MAN EDITED BY A.M.ALLCHIN FELLOWSHIP OF SAINT ALBAN AND SAINT SERGIUS 52 LADBROKE GROVE LONDON W112PB Copyright © Fellowship of St.Alban and St.Serglus London 1967 First Edition 1967 Second Edition 1987 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 6 A.M.Allchin l.THE IMAGE AS SACRAMENTAL 14 C.E.Putnam 2.THE TRANSFIGURATION OF THE BODY 19 Bishop Kallistos of Diokleia 3. BODY AND MATTER IN SPIRITUAL LIFE 36 Metropolitan Anthony of Sourozh 4. CREATION, INCARNATION, INTERPRETATION 47 A.M.Allchin 5. THE ART OF THE ICON 64 Philip Sherrard CONTRIBUTORS Preface to the Second Edition The contributors to this volume are: In the twenty years since these talks were first published as The Most Reverend Metropolitan Anthony of Sourozh, Head of a book, they have lost none of their immediacy. Indeed, as the Russian Patriarchal Church In Great Britain. knowledge of the tradition of orthodox iconography grows in the Christian West, so the questions addressed here are raised all the Sister C.E. Putnam, R.S.C.J., formerly Head of Art at Newton more frequently. On the other hand, the danger of which Philip College of the Sacred Heart, Newton, Massachussetts. Sherrard speaks here— that of regarding icons as fascinating and moving examples of art, without being led to think about the Dr. Philip Sherrard, author of The Greek East and the Latin West, theology of the image— grows no less. The republication of this Constantinople Iconography of a Sacred City , and other works on volume therefore seems a fitting way to mark the 1200th Greek and Orthodox subjects. anniversary of an event crucial to the Christian understanding of the image— the seventh Ecumenical Council (787), which The Right Reverend Bishop Kallistos of Diokleia, Spalding proclaimed the making and veneration of images as a true Lecturer in Eastern Orthodox Studies in the University of Oxford; expression of the faith of the Universal Church. author of The Orthodox Church, Eustratios Argenti, and other works. The Reverend A.M.Allchin, Warden of St.Theosevia House, Oxford; author of The Kingdom of Love and Knowledge, The World is a Wedding and other works. The Fellowship of St.Alban and St.Sergius is an unofficial association of Christians of East and West, devoted to fostering increased understanding and unity between the separated Christian traditions. Its centre is at St.Basil's House, 52 Ladbroke* Grove, London Wl 1 2PB, Great Britain. INTRODUCTION 7 and Indeed are full of his glory. And man who shares in a measure INTRODUCTION in the nature of him who made him, makes images of many kinds, even indeed images of the divine, and thus himself is also Four of the essays which go to make up this book appeared a creator. originally in the pages of Sobornost, the journal of the Fellowship ' When we speak of the image as sacramental we are of St.Alban and St.Sergius. Two of them, Bishop Kallistos' and my referring in the first place to the fact that in itself no image is own, were first read at conferences of the Fellowship, in England self-sufficient, but that all images point beyond themselves to and Sweden respectively; Dr.Sherrard's was given as a lecture at a some greater whole, with which they are intimately related. A meeting at the British School in Athens, and Mother Putnam's at sacrament always does this too, since it is a sign, or better a Conference of Anglican and Roman Catholic religious, at Boston, perhaps it is a symbol which conveys and in some way contains Massachusetts. The fifth, Metropolitan Anthony's, which has not what it signifies, which makes present the reality to which it appeared in print before, was also given at a Fellowship points. Furthermore it is always a meeting place, a meeting place Conference in England. Their origins therefore are diverse, and of two or more worlds, or perhaps of two or more persons. This they were in no way planned to be put together. Of the writers, meeting place is here and now, for the sign, the image as three are Orthodox, one Roman Catholic, and one Anglican. It is sacrament is always concrete and particular, never abstract and not remarkable that differences of emphasis and even of view can universalised- though its significance may be universal. It Is this be found among them. What Is remarkable is the depth of icon in this place; this building in this setting. It will not be the unanimity which they reveal, and the way in which in all of them, same building if you put it down in a different place. It is these themes taken from Scripture and the Fathers are seen as having words spoken by this man at this time; not, strange though it an immediate application to the opportunities and problems seems to us, these same words spoken by any man at any time. It which confront twentieth century man, as creator, artist and is such things as these that can become a door, a ship, a bridge, a technician. The restoration of a greater wholeness of vision which way1 into a larger world of meanings and relationships, a way is one of the results of the meeting of Christian East and West can through, by which man can go from this world into the Kingdom affect our attitude to the people whom we meet, and the things of God, or better by which that Kingdom can come, here and now with which we live, and the whole context of the world we work into our midst, here where we are in the midst of our everyday in. things. All the essays in this book are speaking in different ways For all these reasons, as well as for others, 'the specifically about the Christian understanding of man, and how through Christian image', that is one which is turned towards Christ, 'will coming to know himself in relationship with God, he comes to' always be problematic, humble as well as glorious', for Christ has know himself in a new relationship to the world which God has taken a form which has no outward form. It will be marked by the made. They speak much of image and sacrament, for in the discretion and self-effacement of that Spirit which does not Christian tradition man is seen as made in God's image, and force, but establishes and fulfils the freedom of the creature. It Christ, in whom that image is restored, is himself the great can easily be ignored or misunderstood, since it makes present sacrament, In whom the mystery of God's saving purpose is the infinite strength and richness of the divine, in the fragility revealed. The word 'image' or 'icon' is used in a variety of ways and poverty of earthly things. For it is really in these particular and at a variety of levels in these pages. Christ himself is the things, in these particular persons that the Kingdom is revealed. brightness of the Father's glory, and 'the express image of his person'; man is made in God's image and likeness; all things that 1 For these Images which occur in Luther, see Regln Prenter's Splritus Creator, are, since they are made by God, image his glory in some degree, Studier i Luthers Theologi (Copenhagen, 1946), p. 160, no. 177. In the English translation (Muhlenberg Press, Philadelphia, 1953), p. 148. 8 SACRAMENT AND IMAGE INTRODUCTION 9 And outwardly they are often very ordinary things and persons. present century. Man as God's image is the meeting place for Again the writers in this book are concerned to speak of these two worlds, and here the symbol is of special importance, man as image, and man as sacrament; man as he is as created by for it 'is not only a way of confronting what is outside ourselves; God, who despite the obscurities of the fall, is still the work of every symbol is two-edged, it opens up reality and it opens up the God's hands and still shows that he is made in God's image; man self.' It is a way by which we can see what is within, as well as as he is, redeemed in Christ, who is true man, the new Adam, in what is round about us. whom the fullness both of image and of likeness is restored. And These two realms in which man lives can be described in a all, but particularly Metropolitan Anthony, speak about the place variety of ways. In these pages, especially in Dr. Sherrard's essay, of man's body. For it is precisely as a unity of soul and body that they are spoken of in terms of the classical patristic view of the man is able most fully to reveal his character as created in God's matter, which owed something both to the Bible and to the image. It is this peculiar composite nature of man's being, uniting heritage of Greek philosophy. In this way of seeing things, the in himself as he does the different elements in creation, which worlds are spoken of as that of the mind or spirit (Νοθς) , and made the Fathers speak of man as a little world, a microcosm, that of sense perception. Man is to unite the two and enable them whose calling and task it is to act as a mediator, a reconciler to speak, by drawing both into a movement of adoration and love drawing together into one the praises of all Creation, that for God. In themselves, before the creation of man, according to through him all might rise in harmony to the Creator. 2 This view Gregory Nazianzen, 'Mind and sense remain distinct within their of man as a microcosm, placed in the centre of the created boundaries, bearing within themselves the magnificence of the order, as conceived by the Fathers of the Church, was doubtless Creator Logos, but praising silently... Nor was there any mingling to some extent moulded by the picture of the physical universe between them; nor yet were the riches of God's goodness current in their time. In our own day it finds a new expression in manifested...till man was placed on earth as a kind of second the writings of a man like Pere Teilhard de Chardin, and again it world, a microcosm, a new angel, a mingled worshipper...visible is linked with an appreciation of man's bodily nature. It is worked and yet intelligible...to be the husbandman of immortal plants.' out now in dynamic, evolutionary terms, in terms of the idea of Commenting on these words Fr.Gervase Mathew says, 'This is man as the latest product of a process of evolution which is still perhaps as close as we shall ever get to the Byzantine conception continuing, and in which he has to take an ever more conscious of the essential function of all forms of religious art. Because man and responsible part, since now he seems to bear within himself is body he shares in the material world around him, which passes the destiny of at least this planet on which he lives at present. within him through his sense perceptions. Because man is mind The Fathers spoke of man as placed by God in the world as a king' he belongs to the world of higher reality and pure spirit. Because and a priest. At the present time man begins to become aware of he is both, he is in Cyril of Alexandria's phrase "God's crowned how much power he wields, and at least begins to sense the image"; he can mould and manipulate the material and make it necessity for wisdom and humility in the exercise of that power. But it is not only in relation to the world which we perceive with articulate. The sound in a Byzantine hymn, the gestures in a our senses that man, as a unity of body and soul, has this central liturgy, the bricks in a church, the cubes in a mosaic are matter and crucial role to play. As well as the world man knows outside made articulate in the divine praise. All become articulate himself, there is also the world he knows within, and this too is a through becoming part of a rhythm. In the world of matter they world of which he has become aware in a new way during this have become echoes of harmonies in the world of mind. This could explain the crucial importance of mathematics in Byzantine aesthetics.'3 2 For a very full treatment of this subject as I tis worked out by one of the greatest of the Greek Fathers, see Lars Thunberg, Microcosm and Mediator: the theological anthropology ofMaxImus the Confessor (Uppsala, 1965). 3 See Gervase Mathew, Byzantine Aesthetics (London, 1964), p.23. 10 SACRAMENT AND IMAGE INTRODUCTION 11 The praise of God is celebrated and the glory of God is way of thinking, which has exalted the discursive reason at the revealed through the building of vaults, the constructing of expense of man's other faculties, the Western world as a whole mosaics, the singing of hymns, the actions of the liturgy; has been led into making a fatal divorce between body and soul, activities which if on the one side they touch dancing and song, which has produced that deep distrust of the body and its on the other touch mechanical engineering and mathematics. instincts, that suspicion of feeling and intuition, and of the whole And none of these things are done without the participation of realm of artistic creativity which has marked so much of our man's body, which has to be taken into this rhythm, in which civilisation. It is this that has caused us to starve 'the infra- sense and spirit are to be at one. This is to say that God is made rational, the supra-rational, the subconscious, the pre-conscious, known to man , as he is, a body-soul unity, and not to his mind or the whole gamut of body-soul relationships' which call out for the spirit alone. We are not to think that our minds can perceive God 'intuitive non-logical way of meeting reality' which is mediated by while our senses cannot. God as he is in himself goes utterly the sacramental image. To recognise this will not involve us in a beyond the scope both of mind and of senses. But by the flight into irrationalism. It will mean that we learn to pray again transforming power of his grace, and the unbelievable nature of with Solomon 'Give unto thy servant an understanding heart.' We his generosity, the whole man can become fit to perceive the have to learn again how to relate to the body and its life. operations of his glory. 'So humble is his mercy, that since we It is in the divorce between the two sides of our nature, and cannot raise our understandings to the comprehension of divine our consequent predicament, that we can find the origin of the mysteries, he will bring down and submit those mysteries to the present movement towards a complete identification with the apprehension of our senses.' body, a total surrender to the promptings of its needs and Because the Christian tradition has insisted that the body is impulses. This reaction to the immediate past is extremely to be guided by the spirit, and exists for the spirit, rather than natural, although ultimately wholly stultifying. For man is not his the other way about, it has often been thought that it denies any body, any more than he is simply his soul. But what then are we sort of reciprocity or mutual respect between the two elements to do? How are we to understand our present situation? Here any in man, or even that it involves a denigration of the body as such, diagnosis must of necessity be personal and tentative. Can we say as something intrinsically evil or worthless. It cannot be stressed something like this? We find ourselves cut off from the roots of enough that this is a total misapprehension, though it is certainly our own life, from its basis in our bodily functions; we can't move one which has its roots in a great deal that has passed for or dance or gesticulate freely. It is as if one has to learn again how Christian teaching and thought in recent centuries and which has to feel and to be free, how 'to respect and rejoice in the force of caused untold harm to our apprehension of the Christian faith' life, in life itself, and to be present in all that one does from the effort of loving to the breaking of bread'. It is as if man had to and life. Here Bishop Kallistos' paper is of the greatest learn again 'how to renew himself at the fountain of his own life'. 4 importance. It shows how the Christian tradition, in its strictest It is not by chance that at this point we White Anglo-Saxon and most monastic form, is totally opposed to the suggestion Protestants feel ourselves strongly attracted by music and either that the body is intrinsically evil, or that it is irrelevant to dancing of African origin. For African people do not seem to have the development of man's life in Christ. It is one thing to deny lost that easiness, that 'at-homeness' in their bodies which we the body in the sense of controlling and curbing its demands. It is know we lack. another to deny it in the sense of pretending that it does not exist. And it is this latter attitude which has characterised so Perhaps here we have something to learn from the many forms of Western Christendom in the last four centuries, experiment in community living made in nineteenth century most notably of course a certain strain in Puritanism, but also America by the Shakers. As Thomas Merton has remarked, their some forms of Catholicism. Under the influence of a Cartesian 4 James Baldwin, The Fire Next Time (Penguin Edition), p.43. 12 SACRAMENT AND IMAGE INTRODUCTION 13 buildings and their handicrafts in their extreme simplicity reveal many different ways we see how the restraint, the severity, the the quality of true sacred art. In contradistinction to much of the renunciation of the Christian, and of the monastic, way has not 'ecclesiastical' art of the time, with its artificially applied cut man off from the well springs of his life and being, but by 'symbolism', a Shaker table or bed speaks of the very heart of purification has renewed and restored them. Or rather in the depth of his own being has enabled him to find and be quickened things, discloses the logoi, sings. And there is something else by the eternal life of the Spirit of God. In the men who create that is noteworthy here. These communities of men and women such works we may say 'that nature returns to the source from living side by side in single life, 'lifting up their hands to work which it sprang',6 and thus 'the source of all our seeing rinsed and their hearts to praise God' had discovered, to their own and cleansed...gives back to us the clear unfallen world'. 7 The evident astonishment, that it was in the dances which came to axiom that grace does not destroy nature but fulfils it, is not just a have a central place in their worship, that they received 'The gift theological axiom. It refers to man's life, to the whole of his to be simple, the gift to be free'. The experience of dancing in existence, bodily no less than spiritual. It is through the whole of church has become so foreign to us, that it is difficult to convey man that God works and is present in this world of people and how entirely natural and reverent it can be in the very few places things; and it is only as restored to his true nature in God that where the tradition is preserved, as it is in Luxemburg at man himself can be truly present where he is. 'For being with Echternach. There every Whitsun Tuesday thousands of people, God, is being intensely present; present where we are, as God is having danced through the streets, accompanied by a variety of present where we are; present to things round about us with that bands, dance through the great basilica and past the shrine of intense consciousness which belongs to God' (R.M.Benson). Such St.Willibrord. This action liberates a dimension of joy, praise and a presence to people round about us transforms our social childlike delight in God which seldom finds expression in our relationships, makes them transparent to God's glory, and worship. In general we have excommunicated our brass bands, releases that of God in us and in those with whom we come in and all that side of our nature can never come to Church. No contact. Such a presence to things, whether we approach them wonder those earnest, God-fearing men and women, the Shakers, by way of artistic perception and activity, or of scientific found the release of energy and feeling which came in the dance, investigation and control, can release the divine in them too, that both humbling and 'mortifying'. But surely this acceptance of the they too may sing to God's glory. And to the Christian this whole of themselves in dancing is not unconnected with the renewal of vision, which is also a renewal of relationships, is not purity of act and vision which is so evident in their work.5 only, as in Muir's great poem, a restoration of the one unfallen That same clearness of vision is present, in a more highly world. It is not only the brightness of the first day of creation developed form, in all that we recognise as true sacred art. And which we see. It is the first dawning of the eighth, that day which everywhere that art is marked by that transfigured humanism, shall know no night. that transfiguration of the body, which we see alike in the frescoes of Mistra, and in the writing of an Ailred of Rievaulx. In 5 In view of the total incomprehension of the times in which they lived and their own almost complete isolation from the great body of Christian tradition, it is not surprising that the Shaker communities should have exhibited many odd and eccentric features in their worship and belief. What is remarkable is that despite these things, they produced a whole harvest of dances and songs and rituals to express the realities of their life together, in which one has the impression that an element of the peasant culture of England, which was never able to develop fully in this country, burst into blossom when transplanted to America. For the Shakers 6 William of St.Thierry, Meditations and Prayers, pp. 94-5. The whole of this in general, see E.D.Andrews, The People Called Shakers (O.U.P. New York, 1953); passage is an Interesting expression of the thought of the participation of man's and also The Gift to be Simple by the same author. The new birth of sacred body in the life of grace. dancing among certain communities of African nuns is exteremely Interesting in 7 Edwin Muir, The Transfiguration', Collected Poems, p. 198. this connection. THE IMAGE AS SACRAMENTAL 15 THE IMAGE AS SACRAMENTAL power, since they specify the shadowy things of sense and even produce them. Fleeting phenomena are either participations or Sister C.E.Putnam imitations of the ideas. Unchanging and yet dynamic, they are the source of all levels of reality.4 Christ is archetypal in this sense, as In all reality, there is no one who is more truly sign, image, the early Fathers of the Church were able to see. and symbol than Christ. It is fitting, then, to begin a discussion of The doctrine of the mediating image, measure or parallel is sacred signs with him. Because he 'placed himself in the order of common to Gregory of Nyssa and Denis the Pseudo-Areopagite. signs',1 all images take on a new character. Even before his Starting from the text of Genesis (1:26) which describes man as descent into humanity, the second person of the Trinity is the made to the divine image and likeness, Gregory teaches that the Word of the first: his image, his expression, his total ποίησΐς, the chief aim of human existence is the fulfilment of this divine form of God. It is for this reason that Thomas Aquinas ascribes to image. Looking towards its archetype, the soul is made one with him the traditional characteristics of beauty; for the Son it by a true participation and connaturality. 5 Denis explains this possesses the integrity of the true and perfect nature of the process as the realisation of an analogy. The analogy has two Father, perfectly representing its object, and the clarity of the facets: the creature's capacity to share the attributes of God, and Word, the light and splendour of the divine mind. 2 the divine idea of the creature's perfection or fulfilment. These Taking human form (for him, the 'form of a servant', μορφτ\ divine ideas are the measure of God's love for creatures and are δουλου as opposed to the μορφτ\ ΘεοΟ that was his by right, shown to them in theophanies. The union of the divine and Phil.2:5), he told the apostle Philip that those who saw him saw created analogies is the work of Christ, through whom all his Father, saw God (John 14:9). This is the challenge of creatures reach salvation. Each after its own fashion strives to Christianity, a cult whose image is irrevocable. The Christ of God, become like him -- χρΐστοειδτ\$. 6 embodied, showing us in his form the Father, prevents us from John of Damascus, writing at the time of the great conceiving of Christianity in an abstract and formless way. Not controversy in Byzantium over the worship of man-made images, only that, but because he is in human form and tangible symbol, makes three studies of the problem and defends respect for the God is difficult, if one may put it so. For, while the symbol, unlike icon as a reminder of its prototype. He also makes a significant the mere sign, contains what it points to, by its very transfer into comment on Christ's remark about the coin of tribute, 'Whose another sphere, it conceals at the same time that it reveals. That image is this?' (Matt. 22: 16-21). We are to infer, says John, that, is why Pascal felt God to be more easily recognisable when still as the image on the coin is Caesar's, the image which we show is invisible.3 Perhaps the many-levelled symbolism of the Mass is / Christ's and our aim must be to restore it to him. 7 more easy to enter into, because Christ's humanity is hidden with Alongside these more learned considerations, the texts of the his divinity. early liturgy also mention the divine image. The so-called He is, in any case, at the centre of a theology of the image. anaphora of St.James, dating chiefly from the fourth century, in All the qualities which Plato bestowed upon the eternal its appeal to God the Father includes a quite literal picture which archetypes of his world of ideas can be attributed to Christ as God. They not only have exemplary value, they also have effective 4 Cf.Phaedo, 103B; Parm., 132D; Tim. , 51B. 5 De beatitudtnibus, P.G. 44, 1197B, 1280D. Cf. Roger Leys, S.J., L'tmage de Dieu chez Satnt Gregotre de Nysse (Desclee de Brouwer, Paris, 1951). 1 Maurice de la Taille, Mysterium Fidei , cited by David Jones in 'Art as 6 De divinis nominibus. II, 10; VII, 4, P.G. 1, 648C, 872C. Cf. V.Losski, 'La notion Sacrament', The New Orpheus, ed. Nathan Scott, Jr. (Sheed and Ward, New York, des "analogies" chez Denys le pseudo-Areopagite', Archives d'histoire doctrinale 1964), p.58. et litteraire du moyen-age , V (1930), pp. 279-309. 2 SummaTheologtae ,1, 39, 8. 7 Pro sacris imagtnibus orationes, P.G., 94, 1231-1420. Cf.Gervase Mathew, 3 Lettre a Mile de Roannez II (Paris, 1881). The material in this paragraph is Byzantine Aesthetics (Viking, New York 1963), pp. 38-47; 94-107, for a more amplified by Gerardus van der Leeuw in Sacred and Profane Beauty: The Holy fn tempered view towards the sacred presence within the ikon than the one Art, tr. D.E.Green (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1963), pp.304-27. generally held in the last seventy-five years. SACRAMENT AND IMAGE 16 THE IMAGE AS SACRAMENTAL 17 some mosaicist might have evoked: 'From a clod of earth you it opens up reality and it opens up the self. 11 In an art work, it fashioned man; you made him an image of yourself, made him like provides a 'calculated trap for meditation.'12 Such a trap is yourself...Then (after the fall) you sent into the world your only necessary, for even though it is possible to see externals and also Son, our Lord Jesus Christ: his coming meant the restoration of 'essences' without passing from them to deeper relationships, if the image—the pieces were put together again.'8 there were no externals, we could not come to the 'dimension of The anaphora of St.Basil and the Alexandrian liturgy of St.Mark depth' (Tillich's definition of religion) at all.13 use similar expressions. Following Hebrews 1:2, Christ is called This is precisely the sacramentality of form. All things the 'radiance of [God's] splendor and the full expression of [his] possess this revelatory power insofar as they lead to 'ultimate being'. Finally, we can turn to the last phrases of the hymn to meaning', to the presence of God, to communication with him, to Christ by Synesius of Cyrene (d.414): communion with him. Wherever this realisation comes, the Hail Father, Source of the Son, sacramental is present. If art does this, it is sacramental as Son, the Father's Image, opposed to instructional or emotional or a mere palliative to the Father, the Ground where the Son stands, senses. Guardini describes the function of sacred art as just this: Son, the Father's Seal, its scope includes neither the imparting of knowledge, nor the Father the Power of the Son, formation of character, but only the preparation of the way for the Son, the Father's Beauty, Epiphany, the manifestation of God which pierces through the spotless Spirit, bond between sign. 14 the Father and the Son. In a true sense, then, the sacramental image makes present Send, O Christ, the Spirit, send the reality; not just re-presenting it, but actually bodying it forth the Father to my soul; as it has never been and as it has been waiting to be. Karl Rahner, steep my dry heart in this dew, speaking of the urworte, the great, primal or root words, says the best of all your gifts.9 that they are not merely signs; they bring here the reality they This personal plea leads to a further question. From a express. In his view, they are more than the concept and even psychological standpoint, what is implied by Christ's entry into prior to the concept. Their very materiality gives them a fuller the realm of signs? The obvious reply is that man needs symbols. being; and when they are really primal, they are generative as Gerald Vann, in The Heart of Man, says we shall go mad without well. They may be called forth by the poet 'pregnantly', in the way them. Part of the human personality lives in real need of them that Rilke used them: and is often starved. The infra-rational, the supra-rational; the , Are we here perhaps to say: subconscious, the preconscious; the whole gamut of body-soul 'House, Bridge, Fountain, Gate, relationships calls for this intuitive, non-logical way of meeting Jug, Fruit-Tree, Window.' reality. 10 at the most: 'Columns, Tower...' According to Paul Tillich, the symbol is not only a way of but to say, do you understand? confronting what is outside ourselves; every symbol is two-edged: llTteoiogy of Culture (Oxford University Press, New York 1959) p. 57. 8 Early Christian Prayers , ed. A.Hamman, O.F.M., tr. W.Mitchell (H.Regnery, 12 This Is Denis de Rougemont's definition of art in 'Religion and the Mission of Chicago, 1961), p. 216. the Artist', The New Orpheus , p. 63 . 9 Ibid., p. 174. 13 Theology of Culture , p. 5. He also defines religion as 'ultimate reality' or 10 Gerald Vann, O.P., The Heart of Man (Longmans, Green, London 1945), Image 'ultimate meaning.' Cf. 'Art and Ultimate Reality', Cross Currents , 10 (1960), pp. Books edition, p. 103. Cf. also Father Vann's chapters on The Recovery of the 1-14. This essay was originally a lecture given at the Museum of Modern Art, Symbol' In The Water and the Fire ( Sheed and Ward, New York 1953), pp. 63- New York, February 1959. 116. 14 Romano Guardini, 'Sacred Images and the Invisible God', Cross Currents 10 (1960), p. 215. This essay was originally published in The Furrow, June 1957.