Diplomarbeit / Diploma Thesis: Rural Electrification: Acceptance of Pico Photovoltaic Systems in Ethiopia Which conditions contribute to a sustainable integration of technical innovations into work and daily life in developing countries and implementation in the context of development cooperation? Submitted by: Hannah Müggenburg Hölgesstraße 16 Phone: +49 -170-3860313 64283 Darmstadt Email: [email protected] Germany Examination no. 1333954 Supervisors: Dipl.-Psych. Annika Tilmans, Prof. Dr. Petra Schweizer-Ries (University of Saarland) Prof. Dr. Reinhard Leichner (Technical University of Darmstadt) Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Universität Darmstadt Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) Institut für Psychologie Dag-Hammarskjöld-Weg 1-5 Alexanderstraße 10 65760 Eschborn 64283 Darmstadt March, 2011 Acknowledgements This thesis owes its existence to the help, support, and inspiration of many people. I wish to express my gratitude to my supervisors, Prof. Dr. Reinhard Leichner, Prof. Dr. Petra Schweizer-Ries and particularly Dipl.-Psych. Annika Tilmanns, for being abundantly helpful and offering valuable support and guidance. My special thanks go to Annika Tillmans for managing the supervision at short notice and despite large distance. I would like to thank Dr. Carsten Hellpap from GIZ in Eschborn and Joachim Gaube from GIZ in Ethiopia for giving me the opportunity to conduct a field study. I learned a lot and made many important and valuable experiences. My special thanks go to Tim Raabe from GIZ in Eschborn for his support throughout this study. Special thanks go to Prof. Peter Adelmann, who initiated the field test in Ethiopia. I am grateful for the introduction to local conditions, people, cultural values and facilities and thus for helping me to manage a good start in Ethiopia. Thanks for providing . straightforward support during the field test in spite of poor telephone connections Furthermore, I would like to thank Behailu Alemu and Lealem Bishaw for their great work and support. There could have been no better team! Thank you for your huge efforts. It would have been impossible to conduct the field test without you and your skills in conducting rural electrification. Thank you for giving me an insight into your culture and daily lives and for many nice memories. I would also like to express my sincere thanks to Abeba for spending her sundays with me in the village for translation during the interviews. Thank you for your valuable advices and your generous hospitality. Your warm welcome made me feel very comfortable in Ethiopia and I gained valuable impressions. I am thankful that you divulge Ethiopian traditions to me. I would also like to convey thanks to Shewa for her translations. Thanks for your great work, your kindness and open-minded nature. 1 Additionally, I would like to thank the habitants of Soleguraja providing me with helpful insights and sharing of their personal opinions and experience. Thank you for your patience, kindness and hospitality. Special thanks go to Sisay Deme for supporting all activities of the field test. Furthermore, I am thankful for meeting with a warm reception from colleagues of Adama University, especially Andreas Schleicher, Anett Vogel, Birgit Simon, Dereje, Frank, Gerd and Manu Kreß, Mennin and her daughters, Girma, Gosa, Helmut, Klaus Boxnick, Sbhatleab, Sitotaw, Udo Weitekemper, Wolfgang Mitternacht and many more. Lastly, and most importantly, I wish to thank my family, Volker, Maria, Martin and Eva Müggenburg for their continuous and unconditional support of all my undertakings. Without your emotional support and belief in my strength, this study would not have been possible in this way. I also wish to express my deep gratitude to Fabian Gengnagel for raising my spirit, for his understanding and unconditional support. Thank you for your help and strength in countless ways. 2 Contents Abstract………………………………………………………………………………….6 List of Figures……………………………………………………………………..…….7 List of Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………….8 I. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................9 1.1. Recent Discussion about Development Cooperation ............................................9 1.2. Developing Cooperation – Chances of Access to Modern Energy Service ......... 12 1.3. Pico Photovoltaic Systems (PicoPV Systems) ................................................... 16 1.4. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia .......................................................... 17 1.5. Prospects of Modern Energy in Ethiopia ........................................................... 18 II. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................ 20 2.1. Transactional Worldview .................................................................................. 20 2.2. An Environmental Psychology Approach .......................................................... 20 2.2.1. Energy sustainability .................................................................................. 21 2.2.2. Simplified Environmental Model of Human Action .................................... 23 2.3. Theoretical Background of Innovation Acceptance ........................................... 25 2.3.1. Definition of Innovations ............................................................................ 25 2.3.2. Acceptance ................................................................................................. 26 2.3.3. Diffusion of Innovations ............................................................................. 29 2.3.4. Model of Innovation-Decision Process........................................................ 30 2.3.5. Characteristics of Innovations ..................................................................... 34 2.4. Need for further theoretical investigations ........................................................ 39 2.5. Need for further practical investigations ............................................................ 40 III. METHOD ......................................................................................................... 43 3.1. Problem-focused interview according to Witzel ................................................ 43 3.2. Instrument of Analysis ...................................................................................... 45 3.2.1. Procedure of qualitative content analysis .................................................... 46 3 3.3. Sample and Acquirement of data ....................................................................... 49 3.3.1. Description of Sample ................................................................................ 49 3.3.2. Description of data acquirement.................................................................. 51 3.4. Applied Pico Photovoltaic Systems ................................................................... 53 IV. RESULTS ........................................................................................................ 55 4.1. Dimensions of Evaluation ................................................................................. 55 4.1.1. Perceived relative advantage ....................................................................... 55 4.1.2. Negative Evaluation.................................................................................... 65 4.1.3. Quality ....................................................................................................... 67 4.1.4. Usability ..................................................................................................... 72 4.1.5. Experience .................................................................................................. 76 4.2. Integration into Theory...................................................................................... 79 4.2.1. Attitude ...................................................................................................... 80 4.2.2. Perceived Behavioral Control ..................................................................... 80 4.2.3. Subjective norm .......................................................................................... 81 V. DISCUSSION ...................................................................................................... 94 5.1. Restrictions of study .......................................................................................... 94 5.1.1. Critical Examination of Attainment of Data ................................................ 94 5.1.2. Critical Examination of Methods ................................................................ 95 5.1.3. Criteria of Quality ....................................................................................... 96 5.1.4. Results in Comparison with Outcomes of other Studies ............................ 103 5.1.4. Critical Examination of Results ................................................................ 108 5.2. Outlook ........................................................................................................... 109 VI. RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................ 111 6.1. PicoPV systems............................................................................................... 111 6.2. Users ............................................................................................................... 111 6.3. Marketing and advertisement .......................................................................... 112 4 6.4. Field tests ........................................................................................................ 112 VII. REFERENCES ............................................................................................... 114 VIII. APPENDIX .................................................................................................... 123 5 Abstract In order to combat poverty and fight for the Millennium Development Goals through providing access to modern energy, it is necessary to analyze social acceptance of new forms of energy in order to implement them successfully. Nine different Pico Photovoltaic systems were tested during a field study in a non-electrified village in Ethiopia. Each lamp was tested for a week by one of 24 families. Qualitative interviews were conducted in order to explore technology change and its social impacts. With this measure is an alternating change of induction and deduction achieved to create insight. Qualitative Data (interviews, focus groups, participant observation) were supplemented by questionnaires about consumption of energy and pictograms about consumer‘s behavior. The most important results are: Apart from expected benefits in health, work, education and economy, people notice as well improvements in autonomy of children, flexibility, stress, security and family life. Negative aspects were found in social community and in the absence of possible activities. Quality of lamps is defined by respondents by brightness, duration and cone of light. Furthermore, people prefer white, bright light as well as a built-in switch. Systems considered best in European laboratory tests were evaluated poorly in Ethiopia. In the end people ordered 30 systems. Even non-participating people ordered systems. The buying decision was a collective one. Even though energy supply is the responsibility of women, men made the decision about the purchase of the lamps. Generally, people spent 24 Euros to 58 Euros. Keywords: social acceptance; renewable energies; low-cost energy technology; development cooperation; diffusion of innovations; Pico Photovoltaic System 6 List of Figures Figure 1: Link between Energy Consumption and Human Development p. 12 Figure 2: Impacts of Energy p. 13 Figure 3: Off-grid PV technologies p. 15 Figure 4: Simplified Model of Human Action p. 23 Figure 5: Social and Technical Dimensions of Energy sustainable p. 25 Communities Figure 6: Two dimensions of Acceptance: Valuation and Action p. 26 Figure 7: The triangle of social acceptance of renewable energy innovation p. 27 Figure 8: Model of Innovation- Decision Process according to Rogers p. 30 Figure 9: Theory of Planned Behavior according to Ajzen p. 31 Figure 10: Technology Acceptance Model p. 33 Figure 11: The Optimal Arousal Potential p. 35 Figure 12: New innovation decision conceptual framework p. 37 Figure 13: Overview of category of perceived relative advantage p.64 Figure 14: Overview of category of negative evaluation p.66 Figure 15: Overview of category of quality p.71 Figure 16: Overview of category of usability p. 75 Figure 17: Overview of category of experience p.78 Figure 18: Integration of Results in Theory of Planned Behavior p.91 Figure 19: A Typology of Validation Efforts in Content Analysis p. 98 List of Tables Table 1: Components of Experience according to Kaplan p. 36 Table 2: PicoPV Systems tested in this field study. p. 53 7 List of Abbreviations AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome BMZ German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (Bundesministerium fü r wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung ) CO Carbon Dioxide 2 ETB Ethiopian Birr GIZ German International Cooperation (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit) GO Governmental Organization HDI Human Development Index HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus LED Light-Emitting Diode MDG Millennium Development Goal NGO Non-Governmental Organization PicoPV Pico Photovoltaic PPP Public Private Partnership UN United Nations W Watt 8 INTRODUCTION I. INTRODUCTION This diploma thesis presents results of a pilot project with Pico Photovoltaic systems on meeting the lighting needs of low income households in developing countries. This field study takes place in a small village near Adama, Ethiopia. The first part is an overview of recent discourse about development cooperation and a classification of the present study. Furthermore, it explains the link between energy and development cooperation. Due to the newness of Pico Photovoltaic systems, a definition is given. Afterwards, a brief description of Ethiopia, where the field test takes place, is given as well as an explanation about chances of solar energy in Ethiopia. Furthermore, theoretical approaches and the need for further investigations are summarized. 1.1. Recent Discussion about Development Cooperation In order to understand the background of this approach as well as its classification within recent development cooperation, the following section gives a brief overview of recent discussions of aspects of development approaches. There has been much criticism of development cooperation in recent years (Seitz, 2010). A fierce controversy exist between different experts: Sachs argues for doubling the financial means to reduce poverty until 2015 in the context of the Millennium Development Goals. He sees poverty as a consequence of poverty traps or vicious circles1 (Sachs, 2005). This refers to the theory of ―Big Push‖, which states that only a massive impulse of simultaneous aid can trigger a tremendous change. (Rosenstein- Rodan, 1943). Other institutions, such as the Commission for Africa (Commission for Africa, 2005) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development of the World Bank Group (The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank, 2005) also support this idea of a Big Push. On the other hand, voices like Easterly demand a reduction in financial development aid and reconsideration of development cooperation in general (Easterly, 2005). Shikwati even suggests the abolition of development cooperation, because it ―too often fills the pockets of dictators rather than the bellies of the starving‖ (Shikwati, 2002). 1 For example: people, who do not have enough income, cannot save any money in order to release themselves from poverty. 9