RUFFIANS, YAKUZA, NATIONALISTS RUFFIANS, YAKUZA, NATIONALISTS Th e Violent Politics of Modern Japan, 1860 –1960 Eiko Maruko Siniawer CORNELL UNIVERSITY PRESS ITHACA AND LONDON Copyright © 2008 by Cornell University All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, address Cornell University Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street, Ithaca, New York 14850. First published 2008 by Cornell University Press First printing, Cornell Paperbacks, 2015 Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Siniawer, Eiko Maruko. Ruffians, yakuza, nationalists : the violent politics of modern Japan, 1860–1960 / Eiko Maruko Siniawer. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978–0–8014–4720–4 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN 978–0–8014–5682–4 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Political violence—Japan—History. 2. 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Cloth printing 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Paperback printing 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 To my parents, and in memory of obāchan, and to Pete Contents Acknowledgments ix Introduction 1 Political Violence in Historiographical Perspective Violence, Violence Specialists, and Politics Violence and Democracy Approaches to Comparative History 1 Patriots and Gamblers: Violence and the Formation of the Meiji State 11 Shishi: Assassins, Rebels, Patriots Shishi Legacies in the Early Meiji Period Bakuto: Outlaws, Robin Hoods, Local Leaders Bakuto and the Meiji Restoration Bakuto as Political Violence Specialists: Th e Freedom and People’s Rights Movement 2 Violent Democracy: Ruffi ans and the Birth of Parliamentary Politics 42 From Activist to Ruffi an: Sōshi in the 1880s Exporting Violence: Nationalist Tairiku Rōnin across Borders Parliamentary Politics and the Professionalization of Sōshi State Violence and the Second General Election 3 Institutionalized Ruffi anism and a Culture of Political Violence 74 Th e Jiyūtō Ingaidan and Its Bosses Th e Seiyūkai Ingaidan in Party Politics Cultures of Violence: Yakuza Bosses in Diet Politics 4 Fascist Violence: Ideology and Power in Prewar Japan 108 Fascist Ideologies Fascist Violence Th e Nationalist Nexus in the Metropole and Beyond Violence in the Decline of the Political Parties 5 Democracy Reconstructed: Violence Specialists in the Postwar Period 139 Th e Decline of Sōshi and the Remaking of Ingaidan Violence Violence as a Political and Discursive Weapon in Diet Politics vii viii CONTENTS “Bōryokudan” Redux: Yakuza and the Conservative Nexus 1960: Th e Apogee of Postwar Violence Specialists Coda: Political Violence aft er 1960 Afterword 175 Violence and Democracy Violence, Fascism, Militarism Violence Specialists and History A Contemporary Perspective on Violent Democracy Glossary 183 Notes 185 Bibliography 231 Index 251 Acknowledgments T he writing of this book was, in many ways, a collaborative endeavor. From its inception to its publication, this project was shaped and improved by colleagues and friends who have taught, challenged, and supported me over a number of years. In those moments when research and writing felt solitary, someone would remind me of how much this work is a dialogue with others. So I am grateful for this opportunity to remember, acknowledge, and express my appreciation to all those who helped make this book better than it otherwise would have been. I owe an intellectual debt to Andrew Gordon, whose approach to Japanese his- tory has greatly infl uenced my own. Only recently have I come to realize just how much this book refl ects his concerns, from democracy to transwar history. Always fully engaged with my work, even when juggling many responsibilities, he has been a model of both scholarship and academic citizenship. I am also indebted to Daniel Botsman, whose expertise in the history of crime and extensive knowledge of Japanese historical scholarship added depth to several chapters. His thoughtful provocations and high expectations were welcome intellectual challenges. Finally, I would not be a historian of Japan were it not for Peter Frost, who introduced me to the subject and continues to be a true mentor. His incisive questions helped shore up the weaker parts of the manuscript, but it is his generosity of spirit above all that I have long appreciated. All three former advisers have had a direct impact on this book, having read and critiqued its many iterations. Others were kind enough to share their ideas about all or part of the manu- script. John Dower’s eye for the big picture and commitment to comparative his- tory have, I hope, left an imprint here. Fujino Yūko has been an extraordinary sparring partner. Her enthusiasm and insights about this topic, willingness to put me in touch with scholars in Japan, and desire to tackle diffi cult questions have been incredibly heartening. Amy Stanley brought her expertise in Tokugawa ix x ACKNOWLEDGMENTS history to bear on the fi rst chapter, pointing me toward important reading and interesting ideas. David Ambaras and Sabine Frühstück were also very giving with their suggestions and time. And Th omas Havens commented on an earlier version of this work. While conducting research, I was aided by many who opened new lines of inquiry. Hiraishi Naoaki sponsored several stays at the University of Tokyo and gave useful advice at key stages. Th ought-provoking conversations about vio- lence were had with Anzai Kunio, Nakajima Hisato, and Suda Tsutomu. Hoshino Kanehiro, Nemoto Yoshio, and Iwai Hiroaki all shared their considerable expe- rience with studying the yakuza. Th e faculty at the Ōhara Institute for Social Research at Hōsei University was very welcoming. And others (such as Mitani Hiroshi, Nakamura Masanori, Narita Ryūichi, Obinata Sumio, and Tamai Ki- yoshi) kindly met with me when I was still groping my way through the dark. At a later stage, Helena Harnik endured a demanding summer as my undergraduate research assistant, making sense of a pile of sources on the 1960s that have since made their way into the last chapter. Th e staff s at various libraries and archives were also indispensable. Th is was particularly true at the Ōhara Institute, Freedom and People’s Rights Movement Archive in Machida City, National Archives of Japan, and Harvard-Yenching Li- brary. I was also glad to explore the collections at the Ministry of Foreign Aff airs, National Diet Library, Tokyo Metropolitan Library, Ōya Sōichi Library, National Th eater, Fukuoka Prefectural Library, U.S. National Archives in Maryland, and the various libraries of the University of Tokyo. I have been fortunate to enjoy several institutional homes. Williams College is an exceptionally supportive place to work and has been generous with both leave time and funding. My colleagues in the history and Asian studies departments have been especially helpful with this project—I am very appreciative of their en- gagement and encouragement. Th e Institute of Social Science at the University of Tokyo hosted me on several occasions, and the Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies at Harvard University invited me into its community as a visiting scholar. Th rough various experiences at Harvard I was touched by the intellectual ca- maraderie of Cemil Aydin, Jeff Bayliss, Jamie Berger, Marjan Boogert, Michael Burtscher, Rusty Gates, Hiromi Maeda, Noriko Murai, Izumi Nakayama, Emer O’Dwyer, Hiraku Shimoda, Jun Uchida, and Laura Wong. And Yoichi Nakano worked through the themes of the book with me, with great perspective and honesty. I must thank Roger Haydon at Cornell University Press, who took interest in this project when it was still embarrassingly rough and who guided the book through the publication process with ease and good humor. Two anonymous reviewers also provided very constructive feedback on the manuscript.