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Title: Rude Stone Monuments in All Countries Their Age and Uses Author: James Fergusson Release Date: April 28, 2017 [eBook #54620] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 ***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RUDE STONE MONUMENTS IN ALL COUNTRIES*** E-text prepared by Sonya Schermann, Brian Wilsden, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) Note: Images of the original pages are available through Internet Archive. See https://archive.org/details/rudestonemonumen00ferg THE STANDING STONES OF STENNIS. From an original drawing in the possession of the Author. FRONTISPIECE RUDE STONE [Pg ii] [Pg iii] MONUMENTS IN ALL COUNTRIES; THEIR AGE AND USES. By JAMES FERGUSSON, D.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S., F.R.I.B.A., &c. Demi-Dolmen, Kerland. WITH TWO HUNDRED AND THIRTY-FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1872. The right of Translation is reserved. LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET, AND CHARING CROSS. PREFACE When, in the year 1854, I was arranging the scheme for the 'Handbook of Architecture,' one chapter of about fifty pages was allotted to the Rude Stone Monuments then known. When, however, I came seriously to consult the authorities I had marked out, and to arrange my ideas preparatory to writing it, I found the whole subject in such a state of confusion and uncertainty as to be wholly unsuited for introduction into a work, the main object of which was to give a clear but succinct account of what was known and admitted with regard to the architectural styles of the world. Again, ten years afterwards, while engaged in re-writing this 'Handbook' as a 'History of Architecture,' the same difficulties presented themselves. It is true that in the interval the Druids, with their Dracontia, had lost much of the hold they possessed on the mind of the public; but, to a great extent, they had been replaced by prehistoric myths, which, though free from their absurdity, were hardly less perplexing. The consequence was that then, as in the first instance, it would have been necessary to argue every point and defend every position. Nothing could be taken for granted, and no narrative was possible. The matter was, therefore, a second time allowed quietly to drop without being noticed. I never, however, lost sight of the subject, and I hoped some time or other to be able to treat of it with the fulness its interest deserves; and in order to forward this project, in July, 1860, I wrote an article in the 'Quarterly Review,' entitled 'Stonehenge,' in which I stated the views I had then formed on the subject; and again, ten years afterwards, in April of last year, another article, entitled 'Non-Historic Times' in the same journal, in which I added such new facts and arguments as I had gathered in the interval. The principal object it was sought to attain in writing these articles, was to raise a discussion on the moot points which I hoped would have tended towards settling them. If any competent archæologist had come forward, and could have pointed out the weak point in the argument, he would have rendered a service to the cause; or if any leading authority had endorsed the views advocated in these articles, the public might have felt some confidence in their correctness. This expectation has not been fulfilled, but they have probably not been without their use in preparing the minds of others for the views advanced in them, while, as no refutation has appeared, and no valid objection has been urged against them, either in public or in private, I may fairly consider myself justified in [Pg iv] [Pg v] [Pg vi] feeling considerable confidence in their general correctness. Till antiquaries are agreed whether the circles are temples or tombs or observatories, whether the dolmens are monuments of the dead or altars for sacrificing living men, and whether the mounds are tombs or law courts, it seems impossible, without arguing every point, to write anything that will be generally accepted. Still more, till it is decided whether they are really prehistoric or were erected at the periods where tradition and history place them, it seems in vain to attempt to explain in a simple narrative form either their age or uses. As a necessary consequence of all this confusion, it is scarcely practicable at present to compile a work which shall be merely a Historical and Statistical account of the Rude Stone Monuments in all parts of the world; but till something is settled and agreed upon, we must be content with one which to a certain extent, at least, takes the form of an argument. Many of its pages which would have been better employed in describing and classifying, are occupied with arguments against some untenable theory or date, or in trying to substitute for those usually accepted, some more reasonable proposition. Notwithstanding this, however, it is hoped that this work will be found to contain a greater number of new facts regarding Rude Stone Monuments, and of carefully selected illustrations extending over a larger area, than have yet been put together in a volume of the same extent. It may fairly be asked, and no doubt will, how I dare to set up my opinions with regard to these monuments in opposition to those of the best informed antiquaries, not only in this country but on the Continent? The answer I would venture to suggest is, that no other antiquary, so far as I am aware, has gone so carefully and fully into the whole subject, or has faced all the difficulties with which the questions are everywhere perplexed. The books that have hitherto been written are either the work of speculative dreamers, like Stukeley, Higgins, or Vallancey, who having evolved a baseless theory out of their own inner consciousness, seek everywhere for materials to prop it up, and are by no means particular as to the inferences they draw from very obscure or slender hints: or they are, on the other hand, the works of local antiquaries, whose opinions are influenced mainly by what they find in their own researches. The works of such men are invaluable as contributions to the general stock of knowledge, but their theories must be received with caution, as based on too narrow a foundation either of facts or inferences; for it need hardly be insisted upon that no amount of local experience can qualify any one to write on such a subject as this. It does not even seem sufficient that an author should be familiar with all the varieties of megalithic remains. Unless he has also mastered the other forms of architectural art, and knows in what manner and from what motives the styles of one people are adopted from or influenced by that of another race, he will hardly be able to unravel the various tangled problems that meet him at every step in such an investigation. When looked at, however, from the same point of view, and judged by the same laws as other styles, that of the dolmen builders does not appear either mythical or mysterious. They seem to be the works of a race of men actuated by the same motives and feelings as ourselves, and the phenomena of their arts do not seem difficult of explanation. It is because I have spent the greater part of my life in studying the architecture of all nations, and through all ages, that I believe myself entitled to express an opinion on the perplexed questions connected with megalithic remains, though it differs widely from that generally received, and that I dare to face the objection which is sure to be raised that my work is based on too narrow an induction, and that I have overlooked the evidences of primæval man which exist everywhere. It is not, however, that I have neglected either the evidence from the drift, or from the caves, but that I have rejected them as irrelevant, and because I can hardly trace any connexion between them and the megalithic remains, to the investigation of which this work is specially devoted. I have also purposely put on one side all reference to hut circles, Picts' houses, brochs, and other buildings composed of smaller stones, which are generally mixed up with the big stone monuments. I have done this, not because I doubt that many of these may be coeval, but because their age being doubtful also, it would only confuse and complicate the argument to introduce them, and because, whenever the age of the great stones is determined these minor monuments will easily fit into their proper places. At present, neither their age or use throws any light either for or against that of the great stones. It need hardly be remarked, to anyone who knows anything about the subject, that the difficulties in the way of writing such a book as this are enormous, and I do not believe any one could, in a first edition at all events, avoid all the pitfalls that surround his path. The necessary information has to be picked up in fragments from some hundreds of volumes of travels, or the Transactions and Journals of learned Societies, none of which are specially devoted to the subject, and very few of which are indexed, or have any general résumé of their contents. Add to this that the older works are all untrustworthy, either from the theories they are twisted to support, or from bad drawing or imperfect knowledge; and too many of the modern examples are carelessly sketched and still more carelessly engraved. Another source of difficulty is, that it is rare with readers of papers and writers in journals to quote references, and sometimes when these are given they are wrong. I have thus been forced to limit the field from which my information is taken very considerably. I have tried hard to introduce no illustration I could not thoroughly depend upon, and I have not intentionally quoted a single reference I had not verified from the original authorities. In one respect I cannot but feel that I may have laid myself open to hostile criticism. On many minor points I have offered suggestions which I do not feel sure that I could prove if challenged, and which, consequently, a more prudent man would have left alone. I have done this because it often happens that such suggestions turn the attention of others to points which would otherwise be overlooked, and may lead to discoveries of great importance; while if disproved, they are only so much rubbish swept out of the path of truth, and their detection can do no harm to any one but their author. [Pg vii] [Pg viii] [Pg ix] Whatever my shortcomings, I am too much in earnest to look forward with any feelings of dismay to such a contingency. Besides the usual motives which prompt the publication of such a work as this, there are two which seem to render its appearance at this time particularly desirable. The first is to promote enquiry by exciting interest in the subject; the second is to give precision to future researches. So long as everything is vague and mythical, explorers do not know what to observe or record: this work, however, presents a distinct and positive view of the age or use of the megalithic remains, and every new fact must tend either to upset or confirm the theory it seeks to establish. With this view, I need hardly add that I shall be extremely grateful for any new facts or additional sources of information which may be communicated to me, either through the public press or privately. Numerous persons having local experience must know many things which may have escaped me. It is very probable that these may induce me to modify some of the details of this work; but so much is now known, and the field from which my inductions are gathered is so wide, that I have no fear that they will touch the main arguments on which the theory of this work is founded.[1] However this may be, I trust that this work may lay claim to being, in one respect at least, a contribution to the cause of truth regarding the much-disputed age and use of these Rude Stone Monuments. It states distinctly and without reserve one view of the mooted question, and so openly that any one who knows better can at once pull away the prop from my house of cards and level it with the ground. If one thing comes out more clearly than another in the course of this investigation, it is that the style of architecture to which these monuments belong is a style, like Gothic, Grecian, Egyptian, Buddhist, or any other. It has a beginning, a middle, and an end; and though we cannot yet make out the sequence in all its details, this at least seems clear—that there is no great hiatus; nor is it that one part is prehistoric, while the other belongs to historic times. All belong to the one epoch or to the other. Either it is that Stonehenge and Avebury and all such are the temples of a race so ancient as to be beyond the ken of mortal man, or they are the sepulchral monuments of a people who lived so nearly within the limits of the true historic times that their story can easily be recovered. If this latter view is adopted, the whole, it appears to me, hangs so perfectly together, and presents so complete and so rational an account of all the local or historical facts which are at present known concerning these remains, that I feel great confidence that it must eventually be adopted as the true explanation of the phenomena. If it is it will have this further advantage, that when any serious attempt is made to investigate either the history or the manners and customs of these ancient peoples, it is probable that these megalithic remains will be found to be the best and surest guide. From the circumstances above detailed, this work would have been a much more meagre production than it is hoped it will be found, had it not been for the kindness of many friends who have assisted me in my undertaking. My chapter on Ireland, for instance, would have been much less full had not Sir W. Wilde, Mr. Eugene Conwell, and Mr. Moore assisted me with illustrations and information; and for my knowledge of Scotch antiquities I owe much to my friend John Stuart, of Edinburgh, while Sir Henry Dryden's invaluable collections have been of the utmost service to me both as regards Scotland and Brittany. Professor Säve and Mr. Hildebrand have materially aided me in Sweden, and M. Riaño in Spain; but the post apparently suppresses any correspondence on archæological subjects with France and Denmark. Without the kindness of Sir Bartle Frere and his elder brother in lending me drawings, or Colonel Collinson in procuring information, my account of the Maltese antiquities would have been very much less satisfactory than it is; and I also owe my best thanks to Mr. Walhouse, of the Madras Civil Service, and Mr. Burgess, of Bombay, for their assistance in respect to Indian antiquities. I have tried in the text to acknowledge my obligations to these and all other parties who have assisted me. If I have omitted any, I trust they will believe it has not been intentionally, but through inadvertence. For myself, I hope I may be allowed to plead that I have spared no pains in investigating the materials placed at my disposal, and no haste in forming my conclusions; and I may also add, they are by no means those of predilection or that I wished to arrive at. When I first took up the subject, I hoped that the rude stone monuments would prove to be old,—so old, indeed, as to form the "incunabula" of other styles, and that we might thus, by a simple process, arrive at the genesis of styles. Bit by bit that theory has crumbled to pieces as my knowledge increased, and most reluctantly have I been forced to adopt the more prosaic conclusions of the present volume. If, however, this represents the truth, that must be allowed to be an ample compensation for the loss of any poetry which has hitherto hung round the mystery of the Rude Stone Monuments. Langham Place, Dec. 1, 1871. FOOTNOTES What is really wanted now is, a "Megalithic Monument Publication Society." After the meeting of the Prehistoric Congress at Norwich, a committee for this purpose was formed in conjunction with the Ethnological Society. After several meetings everything was arranged and settled, but, alas! there were no funds to meet the necessary expenses, or, at least, risk of publication, and the whole thing fell through. To do what is wanted on a really efficient scale a payment or a guarantee of 1000l. would be necessary, and that is far beyond what is attainable in this poor country. If it could be obtained, the materials are abundant. Sir Henry Dryden alone could fill a volume with the materials he already possesses; and Lieut. Oliver, Mr. Conwell, and others, have drawings sufficient to keep the society at work for a long time. [Pg x] [Pg xi] [Pg xii] [1] CONTENTS. PAGE Introductory 1 CHAPTER II. Preliminary Observations. Tumuli—Dolmens— Circles—Avenues—Menhirs 29 CHAPTER III. England. Avebury and Stonehenge 61 CHAPTER IV. Minor English Antiquities. Aylesford—Ashdown— Rollright—Penrith—Derbyshire— Stanton Drew—Smaller Circles—Dolmens 116 CHAPTER V. Ireland. Moytura—Cemeteries—Boyne— Lough Crew—Clover Hill—Dolmens 175 CHAPTER VI. Scotland. Orkney Stone Circles—Orkney Barrows— Maes-Howe Dragon and Serpent-Knot— Holed Stone of Stennis—Callernish—Aberdeenshire Circles— Fiddes Hill—Clava Mounds—Stone at Aberlemmo— Sculptured Stones—Crosses in Isle of Man 239 CHAPTER VII. Scandinavia and North Germany. Introductory—Battle-fields— Harald Hildetand's Tomb—Long Barrows—Tumuli— Dolmens—Drenthe: Hunebeds 275 CHAPTER VIII. France. Introductory—Distribution of Dolmens—Age of Dolmens— Grottes des Fées—Demi-Dolmens—Rocking Stones—Carnac— Locmariaker—Alignments at Crozon—Age of the Monuments— What are these Monuments?—They must be Trophies— Time of the Fight—M. Bertrand's List of Dolmens in Thirty-one Departments of France 325 CHAPTER IX. Spain, Portugal, and Italy. Introductory—Dolmens— Portugal—Italy 377 CHAPTER X. Algeria and Tripoli. Introductory—Bazinas and Chouchas— Free-Standing Dolmens—Age of Dolmens—Circle near Bona— The Nasamones—Origin of African Dolmen-builders—Tripoli: Trilithons—Buddhist Monument at Bangkok 395 [Pg xiii] [Pg xiv] CHAPTER XI. Mediterranean Islands. Malta—Sardinia—Balearic Islands 415 CHAPTER XII. Western Asia. Palestine—Sinai—Arabia—Asia Minor—Circassia— The Steppes—Cabul 438 CHAPTER XIII. India. Introductory—Eastern India—Khassia—Western India— Geographical Distribution—Age of the Stone Monuments— Comparison of Dolmens—Buddhism in the West 455 CHAPTER XIV. America. North America—Central America—Peru 510 Appendix A.—Glens Columbkille and Malin 520 " B.—Oden's Howe, &c., Upsala 526 " C.—Antiquities of Caithness 527 Index 533 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Frontispiece.—Standing Stones of Stennis. Vignette.—Demi-Dolmen at Kerland. NO. PAGE 1. Section of Tomb of Alyattes 31 2. Elevation of Tumulus at Tantalais 32 3. Plan and Section of Chamber in Tumulus at Tantalais 32 4. Section and Plan of Tomb of Atreus at Mycenæ 33 5. View of Cocumella, Vulci 33 6. View of principal Chamber in Regulini Galeassi Tomb 34 7. Dolmen in Castle Wellan, Ireland 46 8. Dolmen de Bousquet 46 9. Tee cut in the Rock on a Dagoba at Ajunta 47 10. Nine Ladies, Stanton Moor 49 11. Chambered Tumulus, Jersey 51 12. Avenues, Circles, and Cromlech, near Merivale Bridge, Dartmoor 55 13. Lochcrist Menhir 60 14. View of Avebury restored 62 15. Plan of Avebury Circle and Kennet Avenue 63 16. Circle on Hakpen Hill 76 17. Section of Silbury Hill 78 18. Iron Bit of Bridle, Silbury Hill 81 19. Plan of Avebury 81 20. Elevation of the Bartlow Hills 83 [Pg xv] [Pg xvii] 21. Marden Circle 85 22. General Plan of Stonehenge 90 23. Stonehenge as at present existing 92 24. Plan of Stonehenge restored 93 25. Tomb of Isidorus, at Khatoura 100 26. Country around Stonehenge 102 27. Countless Stones, Aylesford 116 28. The Sarsen Stones at Ashdown 122 29. Sketch Plan of King Arthur's Round Table, with the side, obliterated by the road, restored 128 30. Arbor Low 140 31. Vases and Bronze Pin found in Arbor Low 141 32. Section of Gib Hill 141 33. Summit of Minning Low, as it appeared in 1786 142 34. Plan of Chambers in Minning Low 142 35. Fragment of Drinking Cup from Benty Grange 145 36. Fragment of Helmet from Benty Grange 145 37. Circles at Stanton Drew 149 38. View of the Circles at Stanton Drew 150 39. Rose Hill Tumulus 154 40. Snaffle-Bit found at Aspatria 156 41. Side Stone, Aspatria Cist 157 42. Mule Hill, Isle of Man, View of Cists 157 43. Circle of Cists at Mule Hill 157 44. Circles on Burn Moor, in Cumberland 160 45. Boscawen Circles 161 46. Park Cwn Tumulus 163 47. Tumulus, Plas Newydd 166 48. Entrance to Dolmen, in Tumulus, Plas Newydd 166 49. Dolmen at Pentre Ifan 168 50. Dolmen at Plas Newydd 169 51. Arthur's Quoit, Gower 170 52. Plan of Arthur's Quoit 171 53. Hob Hurst's House, on Baslow Moor, Derbyshire 172 54. Circle on Battle-field of Southern Moytura 177 55. Cairn on Battle-field of Southern Moytura 177 56. The Cairn of the "One Man," Moytura 179 57. Urn in the Cairn of the "One Man," Moytura 179 58. Battle-field of Northern Moytura 181 59. Sketch Plan of Circle 27, Northern Moytura 182 60. View of Circle 27, Northern Moytura 183 61. Dolmen, with Circle, No. 7, Northern Moytura 183 62. Rath na Riog, or, Cathair of Cormac, at Tara 194 63. View of Mound at New Grange 201 64. New Grange, near Drogheda 203 65, 66. Ornaments at New Grange 205 67. Branch at New Grange 207 68. Sculptured mark at New Grange, of undecided character 207 69. Chambers in Mound at Dowth 208 70, 71. Ornaments in Dowth 210 72. Cairn T, at Lough Crew 214 73. The Hag's Chair, Lough Crew 215 74. Two Stones in Cairn T, Lough Crew 216 [Pg xviii] 75. Cell in Cairn L, at Lough Crew 217 76. Stone in Cairn T, Lough Crew 222 77. Stones in Sculptured Graves, Clover Hill 223 78. Dolmen at Knockeen 229 79. Plan of Dolmen at Knockeen 230 80. Calliagh Birra's House, north end of Parish of Monasterboice 230 81. Plan and Section of Chamber in Greenmount Tumulus 232 82. Dolmen of the Four Maols, Ballina 233 83. Sketch-Plan of Monument in the Deer Park, Sligo 234 84. Circle at Stennis 242 85. Dragon in Maes-Howe 245 86. Wurm-Knot, Maes-Howe 245 87. Plan and Section of Maes-Howe 246 88. View of Chamber in Maes-Howe 247 89. Monument at Callernish 259 90. Circle at Fiddes Hill 264 91. Plan of Clava Mounds 266 92. View of Clava Mounds 266 93. Stone at Coilsfield 267 94. Front of Stone at Aberlemmo, with Cross 269 95. Back of Stone at Aberlemmo 269 96. Cat Stone, Kirkliston 271 97, 98. Crosses in Isle of Man, bearing Runic Inscriptions 273 99. View of Battle-field at Kongsbacka 279 100. Part of the Battle-field of Braavalla Heath 281 101. Harald Hildetand's Tomb at Lethra 282 102. Long Barrow, Kennet, restored by Dr. Thurnam 284 103. Long Barrow at Wiskehärad, in Halland 288 104. Battle-field at Freyrsö 292 105. Dragon on King Gorm's Stone, Jellinge 296 106. Dolmen at Herrestrup 303 107. Dolmen at Halskov 304 108. Dolmen at Oroust 306 109. Diagram from Sjöborg 307 110. Dolmen near Lüneburg 308 111. Double Dolmen at Valdbygaards 309 112. Plan of Double Dolmen at Valdbygaards 309 113. Triple Dolmen, Höbisch 309 114. View of Interior of Chamber at Uby 311 115. Plan of Chamber at Uby 311 116. Dolmen at Axevalla 313 117. Head-stone of Kivik Grave 314 118. Graves at Hjortehammer 316 119. Circles at Aschenrade 317 120. Plan of Hunebed near Emmen 320 121. Dolmen at Ballo 321 122. Dolmen at Sauclières 334 123. Dolmen at Confolens 337 124. Plan of Dolmen at Confolens 337 125. Dolmen near Mettray 342 126. Dolmen at Krukenho 342 127. Holed Dolmen, at Trie 344 128. Dolmen of Grandmont 344 129. Demi-dolmen, Morbihan 344 130. Demi-dolmen, near Poitiers 347 131. Demi-dolmen at Kerland 347 132. Pierre Martine 347 133. Pierre Martine, end view 348 134. Pierre Branlante, near Huelgoat, in Brittany 348 135. Map of Celtic Antiquities, near Carnac 352 136. Carnac Antiquities, on enlarged Scale 353 137. Head of Column at St.-Barbe 355 138. Long Barrow at Kerlescant 356 139. Hole between Two Stones at Kerlescant 357 140. Entrance to Cell, Rodmarton 357 141. Vases found at Kerlescant 357 142. Plan of Moustoir-Carnac 358 143. Section of Moustoir-Carnac 358 144. Section of Chamber of Moustoir-Carnac 359 145. 146. Sculptures at Mané Lud 361 147. View of Dol ar Marchant 361 148. End Stone, Dol ar Marchant 362 149. Hatchet in Roof of Dol ar Marchant 362 150. Stone found inside Chamber at Mané er H'roëk 364 151. Plan of Gavr Innis 364 152. Sculptures at Gavr Innis 364 153. Holed Stone, Gavr Innis 364 154. Alignments at Crozon 367 155. View of the Interior of Dolmen at Antequera 383 156. Plan of Dolmen called Cueva de Menga, near Antequera 384 157. Dolmen del Tio Cogolleros 385 158. Sepultura Grande 386 159. Plan of Dolmen at Eguilar 387 160. Plan of Dolmen at Cangas de Onis 387 161. Dolmen of San Miguel, at Arrichinaga 387 162. Dolmen at Arroyolos 389 163. Dolmen at Saturnia 392 164. Bazina 397 165. Choucha 398 166. Dolmen on Steps 398 167. Tumuli, with Intermediate Lines of Stones 399 168. Group of Sepulchral Monuments, Algeria 399 169. Plan and Elevation of African Tumulus 400 170. Dolmen with Two Circles of Stones 401 171. Dolmens on the Road from Bona to Constantine 402 172. Four Cairns enclosed in Squares 402 173. Tombs near Djidjeli 404 174. Circle near Bona 405 175. Trilithon at Ksaea 411 176. Trilithon at Elkeb 412 177. Buddhist Monument at Bangkok 413 178. Giants' Tower at Gozo 417 179. Plan of Monument of Mnaidra 419 180. Section through Lower Pair of Chambers, Mnaidra 419 181. Entrance to Chamber B, Mnaidra, showing Table inside 420 182. North End of Left-hand Outer Chamber at Mnaidra 421 183. Plan of Hagiar Khem, partially restored 423 184. View of Madracen 424 185. Nurhag 428 186. Nurhag of Santa Barbara 428 187. Section and Ground-plan of Nurhag of Santa Barbara 429 188. Map of La Giara 430 189. Talyot at Trepucò, Minorca 435 190. Talyot at Alajor, Minorca 435 191. Dolmens at Kafr er Wâl 441 192. Holed Dolmen 447 193. Holed Dolmen, Circassia 447 194. Baba 448 195. Four-cornered Grave 448 196. Tumulus at Alexandropol 450 197. Uncovered Base of a Tumulus at Nikolajew 451 198. Circle near Peshawur 452 199. Circle at Deh Ayeh, near Darabgerd 453 200. View in Khassia Hills 462 201. Khassia Funereal Seats 463 202. Menhirs and Tables 464 203. Turban Stone, with Stone Table 464 204. Trilithon 464 205. Dolmen at Rajunkoloor 468 206. Plan of Open Dolmen at Rajunkoloor 468 207. Closed Dolmen at Rajunkoloor 468 208. View of Closed Dolmen at Rajunkoloor 468 209. Arrangement of Dolmens at Rajunkoloor 470 210. Cairns at Jewurgi 472 211, 212. Sections of Cairn at Jewurgi 472 213. Double Dolmen, Coorg 473 214. Tomb, Nilgiri Hills 473 215. Sepulchral Circles at Amravati 474 216. Iron Pillar at the Kutub, Delhi 481 217. Sculpture on under side of cap-stone of Nilgiri Dolmen 483 218. Dolmen at Iwullee 484 219. Plan of Stone Monuments at Shahpoor 485 220. Cross at Katapur 486 221. Dolmen at Katapur 487 222. Dolmen with Cross in Nirmul Jungle 487 223. Lanka Ramayana Dagoba 490 224. Dolmen at Pullicondah 491 225. Rail at Sanchi, near Bhilsa 492 226. View of the Senbya Pagoda, Burmah 497 227. Enclosure in Newark Works, North America 511 228. Plan of Uprights, Cromlech D I., Columbkille 521 229. Position of Stones of D III. 522 230. Plan of D VI. 522 231. Plan of Cromlechs of Group E. 523 232. Horned Cairn, Caithness 528 233. Dolmen near Bona, Algeria 532 DIRECTION TO BINDER. The Map illustrating the distribution of Dolmens to be placed at the end of the Volume. [Pg xix] RUDE STONE MONUMENTS. INTRODUCTORY. So great and so successful has been the industry recently applied to subjects of archæological research that few of the many problems in that science which fifty years ago seemed hopelessly mysterious now remain unsolved. Little more than forty years have elapsed since Champollion's discoveries enabled us to classify and understand the wonderful monuments of the Nile Valley. The deciphering of the cuneiform characters has in like manner enabled us to arrange and affix dates to the temples and palaces of Babylon and Nineveh. Everything that was built by the Greeks and the Romans has been surveyed and illustrated; and all the mediæval styles that arose out of them have been reduced to intelligible sequences. The rock-cut temples of India, and her still more mysterious dagobas, have been brought within the domain of history, and, like those of Burmah, Cambodia, or China, shown to be of comparatively modern date. The monuments of Mexico and Peru may be said still to defy those who are endeavouring to wrest their secrets from them; but even for these a fairly approximate date has been obtained. But amidst all these triumphs of well-directed research there still remains a great group of monuments at our own doors, regarding whose uses or dates opinions are nearly as much divided as they were in the days of rampant empiricism in the last century. It is true that men of science do not now pretend to see Druids sacrificing their bleeding victims on the altar at Stonehenge, nor to be able to trace the folds of the divine serpent through miles of upright stones at Carnac or at Avebury; but all they have yet achieved is simple unbelief in the popular fallacies, nor have they hitherto ventured to supply anything better to take their places. They still call the circles temples, but without being able to suggest to what god they were dedicated, or for what rites they were appropriate, and, when asked as to the age in which they were erected, can only reply in the words of the song, that it was "long long ago." This state of affairs is eminently unsatisfactory, but at the same time to a great extent excusable. Indeed it is not at first sight easy to see how it is to be remedied. The builders of the megalithic remains were utterly illiterate, and have left no written records of their erection; nor are there any legible inscriptions on the more important monuments which would afford any hints to the enquirer. What is even more disheartening is that in almost every instance they are composed of rough unhewn stones, not only without any chisel marks, but even without any architectural mouldings capable of being compared with those of other monuments, or, by their state of preservation, of giving a hint as to their relative age. "They stand, but stand in silent and uncommunicative majesty." So silent, indeed, that it is hardly to be wondered at that fanciful antiquaries have supplied them with voices most discordantly and absurdly various, or, on the other hand, that the better class of enquirers have shrunk from the long patient investigations and thoughtful ponderings which are necessary to elicit even a modicum of truth from their stolid reticence. If the investigation into the age and uses of the megalithic remains were a new subject which had for the first time been taken up some thirty or forty years ago, it is probable that a solution might have been obtained before now, or at all events would not be far off. When, however, an investigation gets into a thoroughly vicious groove, as this one has done, it is very difficult to rescue it from its false position. The careless are willing to accept any empirical solutions that are offered, however absurd they may be, and the thoughtful are deterred from meddling with an enquiry which has hitherto led only to such irrational conclusions. The first of those who, in this country at least, led off the wild dance was the celebrated Inigo Jones, the architect of Whitehall. It seems that when King James I. was on a visit to the Earl of Pembroke at Wilton, he was taken to see Stonehenge, and was so struck with its majesty and mystery that he ordered his architect to find out by whom it was built, and for what purpose. Whether the treatise containing the result of his enquiries was ever submitted to the King is not clear. It certainly was not published till after its author's death, and though it shows a very creditable amount of learning and research, the results he arrived at were very startling. After a detailed statement of the premises, his conclusions—as condensed in the Life prefixed to his treatise—were "That it was a Roman temple, inscribed to Cœlus, the senior of the heathen gods, and built after the Tuscan order." This theory was attacked by Dr. Charleton, one of the physicians of Charles II. He had corresponded for some time with Olaus Wormius, the celebrated Danish antiquary, and struck with the similarity in form and of construction that existed between the monuments in Denmark and those of this country, he came to the conclusion that Stonehenge and other similar monuments were erected by the Danes, and consequently after the departure of the Romans. This attack on the theory of Inigo Jones raised the wrath of a Mr. Webb, by marriage a relative, who replied in a very angry treatise, in which he reiterates all Jones's arguments, and then, adding a considerable number of his own, he concludes by triumphantly—as he supposes—restoring Stonehenge to the Romans. [2] So far no great harm was done; but Dr. Stukeley, who next appeared in the controversy, was one of the most [Pg 1] [Pg 2] [Pg 3] imaginative of men and one of the wildest of theorists. His studies had made him familiar with the Druids, whom classical authorities describe as the all-powerful priests of the Celtic race, but who had no temples; on the other hand, his travels made him acquainted with Stonehenge and Avebury, to the latter of which attention had just been called by the researches of his friend Aubrey. Here, then, were temples without priests. What could be so natural as to join these two, though in most unholy matrimony. Our stone circles must be temples of the Druids! But there was still one difficulty. What divinities did they worship therein? Cæsar tells us that the Celts or Celtic Druids principally worshipped Mercury and some other Roman gods whom he named; [3] but no images of these gods are found in these temples, nor anything that would indicate a dedication to their worship. Unfortunately, however, Pliny [4] tells a very silly tale, how in Gaul the snakes meet together on a certain day and manufacture from their spittle an egg (Anguinum), which, when complete, they throw aloft, and if any one wants it, he must catch it in a blanket before it falls to the ground, and ride off with it on a fleet horse, for if the snakes catch him before he crosses a running stream, a worse fate than Tam o' Shanter's may befall him! He then goes on to add that this egg was considered as a charm by the Druids. From this last hint Dr. Stukeley concluded that the Druids were serpent-worshippers, and consequently that Stonehenge, Avebury, &c., were serpent temples—Dracontia, as he calls them, daringly assuming that a word, which in the singular was only the name of a plant, was actually applied by the ancients to serpent temples, of the form of which, however, they were as ignorant as the Doctor himself. Having advanced so far, it only remained to adapt the English circles to this newly discovered form of worship, and Avebury was chosen as the principal illustration. There was a small circle on Hakpen Hill, which had a stone avenue formed by six or eight stones running east and west; between West Kennet and Avebury there was another avenue leading to the circles, but trending north and south. By introducing a curved piece between these fragments, Hakpen became the head of the snake, the avenue its body; Avebury a convoluted part of it, and then a tail was added, a mile long, on the authority of two stones in the village, and a dolmen, called Long Stone Cove, about halfway between Avebury and the end of the tail! Stanton Drew and other circles were treated in the same way; curved avenues, for which there is not a shadow of authority, except in the Doctor's imagination, were added wherever required, and serpents manufactured wherever wanted. It never seems even to have occurred to the Doctor or his contemporaries to ask whether, in any time or place, any temple was ever built in the form of the gods to be worshipped therein or thereat, or how any human being could discover the form of the serpent in rows of stones stretching over hills and valleys, crossing streams, and hid occasionally by mounds and earthworks. On a map, with the missing parts supplied, this is easy enough; but there were no maps in those days, and in the open country it would puzzle even the most experienced surveyors to detect the serpent's form. Had so silly a fabrication been put forward in the present day, it probably would have met with the contempt it deserves; but the strangest part of the whole is that it was then accepted as a revelation. Even so steady and so well informed an antiquary as Sir Richard Colt Hoare adopts Dr. Stukeley's views without enquiry. His magnificent works on 'Ancient and Modern Wiltshire,' which are not only the most splendid, but the most valuable works of their class which this country owes to the liberality and industry of any individual, are throughout disfigured by this one great blemish. He sees Druids and their Dragons everywhere, and never thinks of enquiring on what authority their existence rests. It is not of course for one moment meant to contend that there were not Druids in Europe in ancient days. Cæsar's testimony on this point is too distinct, and his knowledge was too accurate to admit of any doubt on this point. It is true, however, that the description of them given by Diodorus,[5] and Strabo,[6] who mix them up with the bards and soothsayers, detracts somewhat from the pre-eminence he assigns to them: but this is of minor importance. The Druids were certainly the priests of the Celts, and had their principal seat in the country of the Carnutes, near Chartres, where, however, megalithic remains are few and far between. Neither Cæsar, however, nor any one else, ever pretended to have seen a Druid in England. Suetonius met 'Druidæ' in the Island of Anglesea (Mona),[7] but none were ever heard of in Wiltshire, or Derbyshire, or Cumberland, where the principal monuments are situated; nor in the Western Islands, or in Scandinavia. Still less are they known in Algeria or India, where these megalithic remains abound. According to the Welsh bards and Irish annalists, there were Druids in Wales and Ireland before the introduction of Christianity. But, even admitting this, it does not help us much; as even there they are nowhere connected with the class of monuments of which we are now treating. Indeed, it has been contended lately, and with a considerable show of reason, that the Celts themselves, even in France, had nothing to do with these monuments, and that they belong to an entirely different race of people.[8] It is not, in short, at all necessary to deny either the existence of the Druids or their power. The real difficulty is to connect them in any way, directly or indirectly, with the stone monuments: and it seems still more difficult to prove that the Celts ever worshipped the serpent in any shape or form. [9] Notwithstanding all this, in the present century, an educated gentleman and a clergyman of the Church of England, the Rev. Bathurst Deane, adopts unhesitatingly all that Stukeley and his school had put forward. He took the trouble of going to Brittany, accompanied by a competent surveyor, and made a careful plan of the alignments of Carnac. [10] Like the avenues at Avebury, they certainly bore no resemblance to serpent forms, to eyes profane, but looked rather like two straight lines running nearly parallel to one another at a distance of about two miles apart. But may not an intermediate curvilinear piece some three miles long have existed in the gap and so joined the head to the tail? It is in vain to urge that no trace of it now exists, or to ask how any human being could trace the forms of serpents seven or eight miles long in an undulating country, and how or in what manner, or to what part of this strange deity or monster, he was to address his prayers. It would be incorrect, however, to represent all antiquaries as adopting the Ophite heresy. Another group have argued [Pg 4] [Pg 5] [Pg 6] [Pg 7] stoutly that Stonehenge was an observatory of the British Druids. This theory was apparently suggested by views published by Daniell and others of the observatories erected by Jey Sing of Jeypore at Delhi, Ougein, Benares, and elsewhere in India. All these, it is true, possess great circles, but each of all these circles contains a gnomon, which is as essential a part of such an astronomical instrument as it is of a sun-dial, and no trace of such a feature, it need hardly be said, occurs in any British circle. One antiquary, who ought to be better informed,[11] concluded that Stonehenge was an observatory, because, sitting on a stone called the Altar on a Midsummer morning, he saw the sun rise behind a stone called the Friar's Heel. This is the only recorded observation ever made there, so far as I know; and if this is all, it is evident that any two stones would have answered the purpose equally well, and as the Altar stone is sixteen feet long, it allows a latitude of observation that augurs ill for the Druidical knowledge of the exact sciences. Neither Mr. Ellis, however, nor Dr. Smith, nor the Rev. Mr. Duke,[12] nor indeed any of those who have taken up the astronomical theory, have yet pointed out one single observation that could be made by these circles that could not be made as well or better without them. Or, if they were orreries, as is sometimes pretended, no one has explained what they record or represent in any manner that would be intelligible to any one else. Till some practical astronomer will come forward and tell us in intelligible language what observations could be performed with the aid of the circles of Stonehenge, we may be at least allowed to pause. Even, however, in that case, unless his theory will apply to Avebury, Stanton Drew, and other circles so irregular as to be almost unmeasurable, it will add little to our knowledge. It might be an amusing, though it certainly must be a profitless, task to enlarge on these and all the other guesses which have from time to time been made with regard to these mysterious remains. It is not, however, probable that theories so utterly groundless will be put forward again, or, if promulgated, that they will be listened to in future. The one excuse for them hitherto has been that their authors have been deprived of all their usual sources of information in this matter. It is not too much to assert that there is not one single passage in any classical author which can be construed as alluding directly or indirectly to the megalithic remains on these isles or on the continent. With all their learning and industry, the antiquaries of the last century could only find one passage which, with all their misapplied ingenuity, they could pervert to their purposes. It was this—in his second book, Diodorus, quoting from Hecatæus, mentions that in an island, not less in size than Sicily, and opposite to Celtica, there existed among the Hyperboreans a circular temple magnificently adorned.[13] Stukeley and his followers immediately jumped to the conclusion that the island not less than Sicily and opposite Gaul must be England, and the circular temple Stonehenge, which was consequently dedicated to Apollo and the serpent Python, and our forefathers were the Hyperboreans, and our intercourse with Greece clear and frequent. It is marvellous what a superstructure was raised on such a basis. But against it may be urged that the whole of the second book of Diodorus is dedicated solely to a description of Asia. In the preceding chapter he describes the Amazons, who, if they ever existed, certainly lived in that quarter of the globe. In the following chapters he describes Arabia, and even in this one (xlvii.) he speaks of the Hyperboreans as inhabiting the northern parts of Asia. By the utmost latitude of interpretation we might assume this island to have been in the Baltic—Œsel probably, Gothland possibly, but certainly not further west. It is impossible Diodorus could be mistaken in the matter, for in his fifth book he describes the British Isles in their proper place, and with a very considerable degree of accuracy.[14] But, after all, what does it amount to? In this island there was a circular temple. We are not told whether it was of wood or of stone, whether hypæthral, or roofed, or vaulted, and certainly there is not a shadow of a hint that it was composed of a circle of rude stones like those in this country with which the antiquaries of the last century tried to assimilate it. It is little to be wondered at if all this rashness of speculation and carelessness in quotation should have produced a belief that the solution of the problem was impossible from any literary or historical data, or if consequently our modern antiquaries should have grasped with avidity at a scheme, first proposed by the Danes, which seemed at all events to place the question on a scientific basis. No country could well be more favourably situated for an enquiry of this sort than Denmark. It is rich in megalithic remains of all sorts. Its tumuli and tombs seem generally to have been undisturbed; and it was exceptionally fortunate in having a government with sufficient common sense to enact a law of treasure-trove, so just and, at the same time, so liberal as to prevent all metal articles from finding their way to the melting pot, and governors so intelligent as fully to appreciate the scientific value of these early remains. In consequence of all this, the museums at Copenhagen were soon filled with one of the richest collections of antiquities of this sort that was ever collected, and when brought together it was not difficult to perceive the leading features that connected them in one continuous sequence. First it appeared that there was an age extending into far prehistoric times, when men used only implements of stone and bone, and were ignorant of the use of any of the metals; then that an age had succeeded to this when the use of bronze was known, and also probably that of gold; and, lastly, that there was a third age, when iron had been introduced and had superseded the use of all other metals for weapons of war and utilitarian purposes. The Danish antiquaries were somewhat divided in opinion as to the exact period when bronze was first introduced, some carrying it back as far as 2000 B.C., others doubting whether it was known in Denmark more than 1000 or 1200 years B.C., but all agreed that iron was introduced about the Christian era. Having satisfied themselves on these points, the Danish antiquaries proceeded at once to apply this system to the monuments of their country. Any tomb or tumulus which was devoid of any trace of metal was dated at once at least 1000, probably 2000, years before Christ, and might be 10,000, or 20,000 years old, or even still older. Any tomb containing bronze was at once set down as dating between the war of Troy and the Christian era; and if a trace of iron was detected, it was treated as subsequent to the [Pg 8] [Pg 9] [Pg 10] last-named epoch, but still as anterior to the introduction of Christianity, which in Denmark dates about the year 1000 A.D. This system seemed so reasonable and philosophical, compared with the wild theories of the British antiquaries of the last century, that it was instantly adopted both in the country of its birth and in England and France; and the succession of the three ages—stone, bronze, and iron—was generally looked upon as firmly established as any fact in chronology. Gradually, however, it has been perceived that the hard and fast line at first drawn between them cannot be maintained. At the last meeting of the International Archæological Congress, held at Copenhagen in the autumn of 1869, it was admitted on all hands that there was a considerable overlap between each of the three ages. Men did not immediately cease to use stone implements when bronze was introduced; and bronze continued to be employed for many purposes after the use of iron was well known.[15] Antiquaries have not yet made up their minds to what extent the overlap took place; but on its determination depends the whole value of the scheme as a chronometric scale. If the Danes, instead of breaking up their "finds" and distributing them in cases according to a pre-conceived system, had kept and published a careful record of the places where the contents of their museums were found, and in what juxtaposition, we should not probably be in our present difficulty. Under the circumstances, it is perhaps fortunate that we had no central museum, but that our antiquaries have published careful narratives of their proceedings. Sir Richard Colt Hoare's great works are models of their class, but are scarcely to be depen...