Brighter Thinking A/AS Level History for AQA Written for the AQA A/AS Level English Language and Literature specification for first teaching from Royal Authority and the 2015, this Student Book supports learning at every stage of the new linear A/AS Level courses. Building on the ethos behind the new qualifications, including the use of innovative research from higher education, this resource focuses on the exam specification and allows for wider breadth and Angevin Kings, 1154–1216 depth of learning. • Includes a unique three-part structure with • Activities throughout the book focus on key A /AS Level History for AQA ‘Beginning’, ‘Developing’ and ‘Enriching’ sections language topics, issues and concepts, and provide helping to bridge the gap between GCSE and guidance on responding to examination A level, develop knowledge and understanding of questions. Student Book the specification and extend learning beyond the • Cambridge Elevate-enhanced Edition features curriculum. additional rich digital content, including tutorial- Martin Evans • Supports both AS and A Level teaching, with AS style videos covering key specification topics and Series Editors: Michael Fordham and David Smith content signposted throughout the book. interviews with writers and academics. A / A About the authors This book has been approved by AQA. S L E Series Editor Marcello Giovanelli is Assistant Professor in V E English Education at the University of Nottingham and has L H published widely in the fields of applied linguistics and IS stylistics. He has many years’ experience of teaching English T O Language and Literature in schools and in higher education. R Y F Andrea Macrae is a Senior Lecturer in Stylistics at Oxford O R Brookes University, and researches and publishes work in A Q narratological, performative, cognitive and pedagogical A stylistics. She has also been a resource writer and trainer for S T A Level teaching. U D E Felicity Titjen is a course leader at Oldham Sixth Form N T College and has been a resource writer, trainer and B O presenter across a range of professional development O courses for teachers on effective A Level teaching. K Ian Cushing teaches English at secondary and sixth-form levels. He has published a range of materials related to language and linguistics, and presents training courses for teachers, primarily on A Level English. His interests are in integrated approaches to teaching grammar, language and literature. Visit www.cambridge.org/ukschools for full details of all our A/AS Level English resources and for information on the Cambridge Elevate digital subscription service. Contents Contents About this Series iv 6 The end of John’s reign, 1214–1216 113 Defeat in the war with France 113 e Relations between King John and the barons 118 The First Barons’ War 123 Part 1 THE REIGN OF HENRY II, ‘King John’s legacy 128 1154–1189 1 l Glossary 132 p 1 The Restoration of Royal Authority, 1154–1166 1 The political, economic and social condition Bibliography 134 m England in 1154 1 The restoration of royal authority under Henry II 7 Acknowledgements 135 The place of religion in society 12 Henry II and England’s overseas territories 16 a 2 The Crisis of Royal Authority, 1166–1174 23 Index 136 The conflict between Church and state 23 Henry II and Ireland, 1166–1174 34 s The origins of the Great Rebellion 37 The course of the Great Rebellion 42 3 The Struggle for Royal Authority, 1174–1189 48 Attempts to consolidate royal authority t after the Great Rebellion 49 Relations between Church andf state, 1174–1189 55 England’s overseas territoaries 57 Social and economic developments in England 67 Part 2 ENGLAND UNDER HENRY II’S r SUCCESSORS, 1189–1216 70 D 4 Richard I, 1189–1199 70 The character and aims of Richard I 70 England without Richard, the absentee king 73 Relations with France and the conflict between Richard and Philip II 79 Social and economic developments 84 5 King John, 1199–1214 90 Royal government under King John 91 Relations with the Church 96 The loss of Normandy and war with France 103 Scotland, Ireland and Wales 108 iii © Cambridge University Press Third party permissions pending A/AS Level History for AQA: Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1189 About this Series Cambridge A/AS Level History for AQA is an exciting new Icons used within this book include: series designed to support students in their journey e from GCSE to A Level and then on to possible further historical study. The books provide the knowledge, Key terms concepts and skills needed for the two-year AQA History A-Level course, but it is our intention as series editors l that students recognise that their A-Level exams are p just one step on to a potential lifelong relationship with Voices from the past/Hidden voices the discipline of history. The book is thus littered with further readings, extracts from historians’ works and m links to wider questions and ideas that go beyond the scope of an A-Level course. With this series, we have sought to ensure not only that the students are well Practice essay questions prepared for their examinations, but also that they gain access to a wider debate that characterises historical study. a The series is designed to provide clear and effective Chapter summary support for students as they make the adjustment from s GCSE to A Level, and also for teachers, especially those who are not familiar with teaching a two-year linear course. The student books cover the AQA specifications About Cambridge Elevate for both AS and A Level. They are intended to appeal to Cambridge Elevate is the platform which hosts a digital the broadest range of students, and they offer not only t version of this Student Book. If you have access to this challenge to stretch the top end but also additional support for those who need it. Every afuthor in this digital version you can annotate different parts of the book, send and receive messages to and from your series is an experienced historian or history teacher, a teacher and insert weblinks, among other things. and all have great skill both in conveying narratives to readers and asking the kinds of questions that pull We hope that you enjoy your AS or A Level History those narratives apart. course, as well as this book, and wish you well for the r journey ahead. In addition to quality prose, this series also makes extensive use of textual primary sources, maps, D Michael Fordham and David L. Smith diagrams and images, and offers a wide range Series editors of activities to encourage students to address historical questions of cause, consequence, change and continuity. Throughout the books there are opportunities to critique the interpretations of other historians, and to use those interpretations in the construction of students’ own accounts of the past. The series aims to ease the transition for those students who move on from A Level to undergraduate study, and the books are written in an engaging style that will encourage those who want to explore the subject further. iv © Cambridge University Press Third party permissions pending 2 The Crisis of Royal Authority, 1166–1174 e l p m a s t f The focus of this chapter is on the troubled middle years of the reign of Henry II. a In this traumatic period clashes with both the Church and with his own family threatened to tear Henry’s empire apart. We will look into: • the conflict between Church and state: Thomas Becket and the crisis of 1170; r the clash between Henry II and the papacy • Henry II and Ireland: the invasions of 1169 and 1171; relations with the Irish D nobility • the origins of the Great Rebellion: dynastic instability and Henry II’s relations with the three rebellious sons, Eleanor of Aquitaine and their supporters; the role of Louis VII of France • the course of the Great Rebellion: political instability; the barons; William I of Scotland; the re-establishment of Henry II’s rule. The conflict between Church and state Henry II was determined to exercise greater control of the English Church. His driving ambition was to enjoy the royal authority he believed his grandfather, Henry I, had wielded. Henry I had exercised considerable influence over the English and Norman churches. In reality he had controlled the appointment of prelates (bishops and abbots) even though he had surrendered the formal right to 23 © Cambridge University Press Third party permissions pending A/AS Level History for AQA: Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1189 do so in 1107. Henry I had also controlled, to a degree, communications between the Church in his possessions and the papacy in Rome. He had regulated visits to his territories by papal legates and had continued to exercise control over Church councils in both England and Normandy. Henry II was not in nearly as strong a Key term position regarding the English Church by 1154. Papal influence in England had Papal curia: the ‘court’ of increased after 1135 along with the increasing development of canon laew, which individuals that served the led to growing appeals to the papal curia in Rome. Pope, gave him advice and In 1161 Henry II saw an opportunity to reassert some royal control over the English helped him to run the Western Church when the Archbishop of Canterbury, Theobald of Becl, died. At Rouen, Church. in February 1162, he reissued the decrees of the Councilp of Lillebonne (1080) that had established firm controls over the Norman Church. (At the Council of Clarendon, two years later, he would demand similar measures for England.) He was firmly established on the throne and pushed successfully for his close friend m and chancellor, Thomas Becket, to be elected. Thomas Becket was duly elected in May 1162. However, if Henry hoped to use his close friendship with Becket to gain stronger control over the English Church he was to be frustrated. Between 1162 and 1164 Thomas Becket challenged and defied the King over several key issues, most notably at a series of church councils. The Archbishop then fled abroad into a exile and relations between the King and his former friend were acrimonious between 1164 and 1170. When peace was finally re-established between them Thomas Becket returned to Canterbury, where he was murdered by four of the Figure 2.1: King Henry II of England in king’s knights on 2s9 December 1170. dispute with his former friend, Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury Why did relations between Henry II and Thomas Becket sour? A matter of principle Hetnry II refused to accept that many of the ‘freedoms’ enjoyed by the English Church were legitimate rights. He saw many of them as undermining royal f authority. Perhaps the most famous of these was the issue of so-called ‘criminous clerks’ – members of the clergy who had committed crimes. This was no small a matter. Technically as many as one in six adult males in England could claim to be a clerk in holy orders. According to the English Church it had the exclusive right to try and punish these clerks in its own church courts and it cited canon r law in defence of this position. Thomas Becket supported the rights of the Church against his royal master. Henry II rejected this alleged monopoly of the Church D Key terms regarding justice over the clergy. He took his coronation oath to uphold justice very seriously. This principled clash was exacerbated by the leniency which the Excommunication: the church courts often showed to offenders, in stark contrast to the harshness of royal most severe spiritual justice. Between 1162 and 1164 there were several high-profile cases in which penalty possible. It placed a Henry believed the actions of the Church undermined royal authority and general responsibility on everyone confidence in justice (see Chapter 1, ‘Ecclesiastical courts’). to avoid those who were excommunicated, and not to aid Another matter of principle concerned the excommunication of the king’s them in any way. tenants-in-chief and royal officials. Given the importance of these individuals to Henry II’s own government and authority he insisted that such men could Tenant-in-chief: anybody who only be excommunicated with his approval. By claiming this he was upholding held land directly from the king. the customs enjoyed by the Norman kings of England between 1066 and 1135. Thomas Becket completely rejected this custom and used the theories of the reform movement to support his position. He argued that spiritual penalties were 24 © Cambridge University Press Third party permissions pending 2 The Crisis of Royal Authority, 1166–1174 a matter for the Church alone and had nothing to do with secular royal authority. This came to a head in summer 1163, shortly after the Council of Woodstock, when Thomas Becket excommunicated William of Eynsford, a tenant-in-chief of the king. The excommunication was disregarded by Henry II and the issue became part of the quarrel that ultimately led to Becket’s murder in 1170. e A matter of personality Henry II had secured Thomas Becket’s election to Canterbury because of the personal trust that he had in him. Becket had shown conspicuous loyalty to his l royal master as chancellor between 1155 and 1162. He had acted for Henry II in delicate situations including diplomacy at the French royal court as well as p supporting the raising of substantial revenue from the English Church and the wider realm to finance the king’s military campaigns. This added to the sense of personal betrayal that Henry II felt when Becket first surrendered the office of m chancellor and then resisted Henry’s attempts to raise further sums of money. Henry II was stunned at the council of Woodstock in July 1163 when Thomas Becket refused to pay sheriff’s aid directly to the exchequer and led the opposition to it. This fee had been traditionally paid by all tenants-in-chief (ecclesiastical and secular) to sheriffs. a The public nature of this resistance by his former friend and the senior prelate in England was profoundly humiliating to Henry II. Becket’s defiance of the king continued at the council of Westminster in October 1163,s where Henry demanded that the English bishops uphold what he considered to be the customs of England regarding matters such as excommunication, criminous clerks and appeals to Rome. Led by Thomas Becket, the bishops w ould only swear a partial and conditional oath (‘saving their order’), and Henry II was furious. t Although the dispute at the Council of Westminster was arguably a principled dispute primarily over ‘criminous clefrks’, Henry’s reaction to Becket’s continued public opposition shows how personally he took the opposition from his former a friend. Henry stormed out of the council and immediately stripped Becket of all his remaining royal honours, including the castles of Eye and Berkhamsted. Most significantly he removed his son and heir, Young Henry, from Becket’s household. He also began showring favour to known rivals of Becket within the English Church. He sought a papal legateship for Roger, Archbishop of York, and backed the abbot of St AuDgustine’s monastery in Canterbury, Clarembald, who was disputing Becket’s authority over him. At the stormy council of Clarendon in January 1164, Henry once again demanded that the bishops unconditionally uphold the ‘customs of England’. Led by Becket, the bishops at first refused, but then Becket surrendered and made the bishops swear to do so. However, Becket then refused to attach his seal and sent the written customs to Pope Alexander III for confirmation. After Clarendon, the gates of the royal hunting lodge at Woodstock were shut in Becket’s face when he attempted to meet with the king. It is clear that Henry II regarded Becket’s position as a personal betrayal and acted accordingly. Another personal matter that possibly impacted upon the relationship between Henry II and Thomas Becket between 1162 and 1164 revolved around Henry’s 25 © Cambridge University Press Third party permissions pending A/AS Level History for AQA: Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1189 youngest brother, William. William of Anjou was close to his royal brother but he did not have any lands of his own. King Stephen’s younger son died childless in 1159 and William sought Isabel de Warenne, his wealthy widow, as his bride during 1162 and 1163. But William was blocked by Thomas Becket, who refused to secure him a dispensation, which was needed because they were closely related. William died in January 1164 and it is claimed that Henry II blamed Beceket for his brother’s death. At the council of Northampton in October 1164 Thomas Becket was summoned to stand trial and formally charged with a series of alleged finanlcial offences relating to his time as chancellor of England and as custodian of pthe castles of Eye and Berkhamsted, for which it was claimed he owed the crown £300. He apparently also owed Henry II 500 marks for money borrowed during the Toulouse campaign of 1159. Given how much time had passed since then and the nature of Becket’s m activities in support of his royal master’s agenda between 1155 and 1162 it is hard to escape the conclusion that the charges were trumped up due to Henry II’s personal animosity and the resultant desire to ruin the Archbishop. ACTIVITY 2.1 a Use the chart to complete the table relating to responsibility for the breakdown of relations between Henry II and Thomas Becket between 1162 and 1164. s Actions that contributed to the breakdown Henry II Thtomas Becket f a r Timeline: Events between 1162 and 1164 D 1162 February: Henry II reissues at Rouen the decrees of the Council of Lillebonne (1080). May: Thomas Becket’s election as Archbishop of Canterbury is confirmed by the bishops. June: Thomas Becket is officially installed as Archbishop of Canterbury. August: Thomas Becket receives his pallium of office from the Pope. Autumn: Thomas Becket resigns as Chancellor and returns the Great Seal to Henry II. 26 © Cambridge University Press Third party permissions pending 2 The Crisis of Royal Authority, 1166–1174 1163 July: The Council of Woodstock: dispute over sheriff’s aid. Henry II is humiliated and furious. Summer: Increasing numbers of criminous clerk cases, notably Philip de Broi. Becket excommunicates William of Eynsford. e October: The Council of Westminster. Becket is stripped of honours, and Young Henry removed from Becket’s household. l Winter: Henry II seeks a legateship for Roger of York and gives his support to Gilbert Foliot and Clarembald. p 1164 January: The Council of Clarendon. Becket reluctantly accepts the m Constitutions of Clarendon, subject to papal approval. August: Becket is refused access to the king at Woodstock and unsuccessfully attempts to flee England to seek papal support. October: Thomas Becket is summoned to stand trial at the Couancil of Northampton. He rejects the charges of embezzlement and then flees. Winter: Henry II’s representatives and Becket boths appeal in person to the Pope. Henry II seizes of all churches and revenues of Thomas and his clerks, and exiles his relatives and household. t Thomas Becket and the crisis of 1170 f In October 1164, Becket fled England in disguise. Exacerbated by the actions of both Henry and Thomas Beckeat, and by the intervention of others, the conflict between the King and the Archbishop dragged on for six years. Henry II’s appeals to the Pope r Henry II was swift to act against his former friend when Thomas Becket fled. He immediately sent ambassadors to make his case before Pope Alexander III at Sens D in France, and hinted that if Alexander III failed to support him in his dispute with the Archbishop he might recognise the authority of his rival, the antipope Paschal III. In May 1165 one of Henry’s clerks, Richard of Ilchester, even swore allegiance to Paschal. It was a tactic, and was later disavowed by Henry II, but the threat was clear. In June 1165, Alexander quashed the sentence imposed on Becket at Northampton, and wrote to Gilbert Foliot asking him to intercede with the King, reminding him of his obedience to Canterbury. Gilbert Foliot, however, wrote to the Pope warning him not to excommunicate the King for fear that Henry II would throw his support behind the antipope. In June 1166, Gilbert Foliot led an English church council in London that sent a joint letter from the bishops to Alexander III asserting how reasonable Henry II had been and how unjustly Thomas Becket had been acting. 27 © Cambridge University Press Third party permissions pending A/AS Level History for AQA: Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1189 Henry II’s personal quarrel with Becket By Christmas 1164 Henry II had ordered the seizure of all the churches and revenues of Thomas Becket and the clerks who had joined him in exile. He also drove many members of Thomas Becket’s family and household into exile. He forbade them from appealing to the Pope. Henry’s actions over the next six years clearly prolonged the conflict, as he was in no mood to comproemise with his former friend and often took actions which made it harder for Becket to compromise. l In 1166 Henry II summoned Becket’s loyal clerks to his court. They reiterated their loyalty to the renegade archbishop, and Henry refused tpo pardon them and restore their possessions. Henry II also stirred up the English Church against Becket. He gained the support of most of the bishops and in particular secured the backing of Roger, Archbishop of York, and Gilbert Foliot, the respected bishop of London. m In June 1170 the King arranged for the coronation of his eldest son, Young Henry, as King of England. This was performed by Roger, Archbishop of York, in violation of Canterbury’s traditional rights. It was a deliberate provocation that made reconciliation even harder. a Thomas Becket’s attitude to the Constitutions of Clarendon In January 1164 Thomas Becket had eventually (although with deep reluctance and only subject to papal approval) accepted the terms of the Constitutions of Clarendon. Howesver, as soon as he was safely in exile he rejected them completely and in June 1166 he formally denounced them, excommunicating some of his enemies in the process. His opposition to areas that were crucial to Henry II’s Voices from the past: Thomas Becket t Thomas Becket, former royal chancellor, and f Archbishop of Canterbury from 1162 until his violent Would that your ears, my dear friend, were open to the death in December 1170, was the key player in the mouths of our people and might hear what is being a dispute between Henry II and the Church in the 1160s. chanted to the shame of the Roman church. For by the Becket had been a loyal servant to Henry II and he Apostolic mandate the bishops of London and Salisbury had also enjoyed the favour of Theobald of Bec, his are absolved, although it is well known that the former r predecessor at Canterbury. Becket shifted to become has been from the first the instigator of schism and the an outspoken advocate of the rights of the Church author of all evil. He it was who seduced the bishop of D after he became archbishop. He wrote many letters to Salisbury, along with all whom he could influence, into secure the support of the papacy or to chastise those the crime of disobedience. I know not how it is that in in England who did follow his instructions. The extract the papal curia the Lord’s side is always sacrificed. We below is from a letter written by him to Cardinal Albert cannot defend the liberty of our Church, because the de Morra, a member of the papal curia whom Becket Apostolic See has now prolonged our exile to the end of had most probably known when he was a law student the sixth year.1 in Bologna. It was written in April 1170 as a response to the absolution of Gilbert Foliot by the papal legate Discussion points which lifted the excommunication placed upon him by 1. Who does Thomas Becket blame for his inability to Becket in 1169. control the English Church? 2. Why does Thomas Becket complain about the conduct of the Pope at this time? 28 © Cambridge University Press Third party permissions pending 2 The Crisis of Royal Authority, 1166–1174 perception of his own royal authority, notably regarding ‘criminous clerks’ and the excommunication of tenants-in-chief and royal officials, was a major stumbling block to any reconciliation. In November 1167 Henry offered a compromise on the Constitutions; although the papal legates accepted this, Becket refused. Thomas Becket’s personal quarrel with Henry II e In November 1167, Gilbert Foliot was summoned to Normandy to meet with papal legates and the King. Roger of York, Hilary of Chichester, and Roger of Worcester were also summoned. Henry appears to have agreed that the papal l legates could judge his case and that of his bishops against Becket, but Becket refused to accept their intercession. Becket wrote relentlessly to Pope Alexander III p in defence of his position between 1164 and 1170 and secured papal protection from Henry II. His exile in France was only possible with the support of Louis VII of France, and his closeness to Henry II’s royal rival was a provocation to the m English king. In July 1168, Alexander III wrote to both Henry and Becket. He suspended Becket’s power to inflict any harm on Henry II and the English bishops until March 1169, but promised to restore Becket’s authority in full at that point. Henry would not a be permitted any further appeals. The very next month, in April 1169, Becket made another thinly disguised attack on Henry II by excommunicating the bishops Key term closest to him, including Gilbert Foliot, Bishop of London, and Joscelin, Bishop of Salisbury. He not only excommunicated the bishops but salso some royal officials Constitutions of Clarendon: and Hugh Bigod, an English earl, underlining his determination to ignore Henry II’s sixteen articles which Henry II insistence that such actions required his consent. had insisted that the English bishops agree to at the Council In July 1170, Becket threatened to put the whole of England under an interdict. of Clarendon in January 1164. Henry and Becket met at Freteval, and camte to an agreement that allowed Becket They extended royal authority to return to England, but did not address the Constitutions of Clarendon or the over the English Church. other outstanding issues. One of Becfket’s first actions on returning in November 1170 was, once again, to excommunicate Roger of York, Joscelin of Salisbury and Interdict: a spiritual Gilbert of London for their roleas in the coronation that Henry had asked them penalty less severe than to perform. excommunication but which blocked an individual or an area In December, havingr arrived in England, Becket refused to lift the three bishops’ from participating in the rites of excommunications and refused to allow them to appeal to the Pope to have them the Church. lifted. Roger, Joscelin and Gilbert left England to report to Henry II at Christmas D in Normandy. On 29 December, four of the King’s household knights arrived at Canterbury and murdered Becket in his cathedral. The interventions of Pope Alexander III Pope Alexander III’s actions clearly played an important role in prolonging the conflict. Alexander III was in a difficult position. He was a reformer and many of the principles that Becket claimed to be fighting for were ones that he too sought to defend. However, there were rival claimants to be pope – between 1164 and 1170, Paschal III and Calixtus III in turn. Alexander III could not risk totally alienating Henry II for fear that the English king might recognise his papal rival and reject his authority. Furthermore, it was clear that Becket did not enjoy the support of the English bishops. 29 © Cambridge University Press Third party permissions pending