ROMAN LEGIONARY AD 69–161 ROSS COWAN ILLUSTRATED BY SEÁN Ó’BRÓGÁIN © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com (cid:56)(cid:34)(cid:51)(cid:51)(cid:42)(cid:48)(cid:51)(cid:1)(cid:116)(cid:1)(cid:18)(cid:23)(cid:23) ROMAN LEGIONARY AD 69–161 ROSS COWAN ILLUSTRATED BY SEÁN Ó’BRÓGÁIN Series editor Marcus Cowper © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 4 CHRONOLOGY 5 THE FORMATION AND DESTRUCTION OF LEGIONS 6 RECRUITMENT AND TERMS OF SERVICE 11 TRAINING 15 THE TACTICAL ORGANIZATION OF THE LEGION 18 EQUIPMENT AND APPEARANCE 36 ON CAMPAIGN 46 BATTLE 50 AFTER THE BATTLE 55 FURTHER READING 59 GLOSSARY 61 INDEX 64 © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com ROMAN LEGIONARY AD 69–161 INTRODUCTION From the great battles at Cremona to the disaster at Elegeia, the period ad 69–161 was filled with drama for the Roman legions. At least three legions were destroyed in battle, two more mysteriously vanished, and others were reconstituted or disbanded for rebellion. New legions were created for wars of conquest in Germany and Dacia, and participated in the great, but ephemeral, expansion of the Roman Empire to the head of the Persian Gulf. In this book, we will examine the life of the typical Roman legionary of ad 69–161, in some cases from his birth in camp. We will investigate how old he was at enlistment and, once a regular, his rates of pay and prospects of promotion. We will examine how his legion was organized for battle, how he was trained for combat, and what his life was like on campaign. The legionary’s experience of battle, the rewards he might win for valiant acts, and his rituals of celebration are considered. We will encounter recruits barely into their teens, grizzled centurions with more than 50 years of service, and training instructors who put their methods into practice on the battlefield. This was an age in which the legions ceased to be Italian. Provincial recruits almost entirely replaced Italians, but within the confines of the camp and the distinct society of the military, the Roman-ness of the legionaries remained incredibly strong. LEFT Domitian (AD (cid:25)(cid:18)(cid:111)(cid:26)(cid:23)(cid:10)(cid:15)(cid:1)(cid:34)(cid:79)(cid:1) (cid:74)(cid:78)(cid:81)(cid:80)(cid:83)(cid:85)(cid:66)(cid:79)(cid:85)(cid:1)(cid:246)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:83)(cid:70)(cid:1)(cid:74)(cid:79)(cid:1)(cid:85)(cid:73)(cid:70)(cid:1)(cid:73)(cid:74)(cid:84)(cid:85)(cid:80)(cid:83)(cid:90)(cid:1) (cid:80)(cid:71)(cid:1)(cid:85)(cid:73)(cid:70)(cid:1)(cid:77)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:80)(cid:79)(cid:84)(cid:13)(cid:1)(cid:73)(cid:70)(cid:1)(cid:83)(cid:66)(cid:74)(cid:84)(cid:70)(cid:69)(cid:1)(cid:78)(cid:74)(cid:77)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:66)(cid:83)(cid:90)(cid:1) (cid:81)(cid:66)(cid:90)(cid:13)(cid:1)(cid:81)(cid:83)(cid:80)(cid:73)(cid:74)(cid:67)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:69)(cid:1)(cid:85)(cid:73)(cid:70)(cid:1)(cid:67)(cid:83)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:66)(cid:69)(cid:74)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:1)(cid:80)(cid:71)(cid:1) (cid:85)(cid:88)(cid:80)(cid:1)(cid:77)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:80)(cid:79)(cid:84)(cid:1)(cid:74)(cid:79)(cid:1)(cid:80)(cid:79)(cid:70)(cid:1)(cid:68)(cid:66)(cid:78)(cid:81)(cid:13)(cid:1)(cid:66)(cid:79)(cid:69)(cid:1) (cid:71)(cid:80)(cid:86)(cid:79)(cid:69)(cid:70)(cid:69)(cid:1)legio I Flavia Minervia(cid:15)(cid:1) (cid:9)(cid:170)(cid:1)(cid:37)(cid:15)(cid:1)(cid:38)(cid:79)(cid:85)(cid:88)(cid:74)(cid:84)(cid:85)(cid:77)(cid:70)(cid:10) RIGHT Trajan (AD (cid:26)(cid:25)(cid:111)(cid:18)(cid:18)(cid:24)(cid:10)(cid:13)(cid:1)(cid:80)(cid:79)(cid:70)(cid:1)(cid:80)(cid:71)(cid:1)(cid:85)(cid:73)(cid:70)(cid:1) (cid:77)(cid:66)(cid:84)(cid:85)(cid:1)(cid:72)(cid:83)(cid:70)(cid:66)(cid:85)(cid:1)(cid:51)(cid:80)(cid:78)(cid:66)(cid:79)(cid:1)(cid:68)(cid:80)(cid:79)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:70)(cid:83)(cid:80)(cid:83)(cid:84)(cid:15)(cid:1) (cid:41)(cid:70)(cid:1)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:70)(cid:66)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:69)(cid:1)(cid:85)(cid:88)(cid:80)(cid:1)(cid:77)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:80)(cid:79)(cid:84)(cid:13)(cid:1) II Traiana and XXX Ulpia(cid:15)(cid:1) (cid:9)(cid:170)(cid:835)(cid:84)(cid:70)(cid:83)(cid:74)(cid:90)(cid:76)(cid:80)(cid:85)(cid:74)(cid:76)(cid:18)(cid:26)(cid:24)(cid:17)(cid:10) 4 © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com CHRONOLOGY (All dates AD) 68 Rebellions of Vindex, Galba and Macer. Suicide of Nero (June); Galba proclaimed emperor. Formation of legions I Adiutrix and VII Hispana (later Gemina).   69 Praetorians murder Galba and elevate Otho (January). German legions proclaim Vitellius emperor; Vitellian legions invade Italy and defeat Otho at Cremona; suicide of Otho (April). Revolt of Civilis in the Rhineland. Flavius Vespasian (conducting war against rebels in Judaea) is hailed emperor by his legions. Flavian legions under Antonius Primus invade Italy, defeat Vitellians at second battle of Cremona (October); capture of Rome and death of Vitellius (December).   70 Civilis’ revolt spreads; establishment of Gallic Empire and destruction of legio XV Primigenia. Petillius Cerialis defeats Civilis and restores order. Titus, son of Vespasian, destroys Jerusalem. II Adiutrix recognized as iusta legio. ‘New’ legions IV and XVI Flavia.   74 Capture of Masada; Jewish War ends.   79 Death of Vespasian; Titus becomes emperor.   81 Death of Titus; succeeded by his younger brother, Domitian.   The emperor Hadrian (AD (cid:18)(cid:18)(cid:24)(cid:111)(cid:18)(cid:20)(cid:25)(cid:10)(cid:15)(cid:1)(cid:34)(cid:1)(cid:71)(cid:80)(cid:83)(cid:78)(cid:70)(cid:83)(cid:1) 82–84 Caledonians attack legio VIII Hispana. Creation of legio I Minervia; (cid:77)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:80)(cid:79)(cid:66)(cid:83)(cid:90)(cid:1)(cid:85)(cid:83)(cid:74)(cid:67)(cid:86)(cid:79)(cid:70)(cid:1)(cid:66)(cid:79)(cid:69)(cid:1) (cid:68)(cid:80)(cid:78)(cid:78)(cid:66)(cid:79)(cid:69)(cid:70)(cid:83)(cid:13)(cid:1)(cid:73)(cid:70)(cid:1)(cid:70)(cid:79)(cid:84)(cid:86)(cid:83)(cid:70)(cid:69)(cid:1)(cid:85)(cid:73)(cid:70)(cid:1) Domitian conquers Chatti. Agricola defeats Caledonians at (cid:77)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:80)(cid:79)(cid:84)(cid:1)(cid:88)(cid:70)(cid:83)(cid:70)(cid:1)(cid:73)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:73)(cid:77)(cid:90)(cid:1)(cid:85)(cid:83)(cid:66)(cid:74)(cid:79)(cid:70)(cid:69)(cid:1) Mons Graupius. Domitian increases military pay.   (cid:66)(cid:79)(cid:69)(cid:835)(cid:66)(cid:77)(cid:88)(cid:66)(cid:90)(cid:84)(cid:1)(cid:83)(cid:70)(cid:66)(cid:69)(cid:90)(cid:1)(cid:71)(cid:80)(cid:83)(cid:1)(cid:88)(cid:66)(cid:83)(cid:15)(cid:1) (cid:9)(cid:170)(cid:835)(cid:46)(cid:66)(cid:83)(cid:74)(cid:70)(cid:14)(cid:45)(cid:66)(cid:79)(cid:1)(cid:47)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:90)(cid:70)(cid:79)(cid:10) 85–88 War with Dacians; two major Roman defeats followed by viiccttoorryy at Tapae.   89 Revolt of Antonius Saturninus supported by legions XIV Geemmmiinnaa and XXI Rapax. Domitian bans practice of two legions sharriinngg a single fortress.   92 Domitian’s war against Sarmatians and Suebi; Sarmatians deesssttrrooyy a legion, perhaps XXI Rapax.   96 Domitian assassinated; senator Nerva made emperor.   97 Trajan defeats Germans.   98 Death of Nerva; Trajan succeeds.   101–102 Trajan’s First Dacian War. Establishment of legions II Traiannaaa and XXX Ulpia.   (cid:22)(cid:22) © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com 105–106 Trajan’s Second Dacian War; defeat and suicide of Decebalus; Dacia added to Roman Empire. Annexation of Nabataean kingdom.   113–116 Trajan’s Parthian War; conquest of Armenia, Assyria and Mesopotamia. Rebellion of conquered regions coincides with revolt of Jewish Diaspora.   117 Death of Trajan; accession of Hadrian.   118 Trajan’s eastern conquests, except Armenia, relinquished.   122 Hadrian in Britain; construction of Hadrian’s Wall begins. Apis riots in Alexandria; destruction of legio XXII Deiotariana? Revolt in Mauretania.   130 Hadrian founds colony of Aelia Capitolina at Jerusalem.   132–135 Bar Kochba revolt in Judaea; destruction of XXII Deiotariania?   135 Alani threaten Cappadocia; repulsed by Arrian.   138 Death of Hadrian; Antoninus Pius succeeds.   139–142 Reconquest of southern and central Scotland; construction of Antonine Wall.   152 Suppression of Moorish revolt.   157–158 Fighting in Dacia.   161 Death of Antoninus Pius; succession of Marcus Aurelius. Destruction of a legion (VIIII Hispana?) at Elegeia.   THE FORMATION AND DESTRUCTION OF LEGIONS Nero raised legio I Italica in ad 66 or 67 for a planned campaign in the Caucasus (Suetonius, Nero 19.2). Soon after, in preparation for the looming civil war, the emperor formed what was to become legio I Adiutrix from drafts of marines from the Imperial Fleet at Misenum. This ad hoc formation was brutally repressed by Galba, but he subsequently recognized it as a iusta legio, a regular legion (Tacitus, Histories 1.6, 36; Suetonius, Galba 12.2; Dio 55.24.12, 64.3.1–2). When he launched his rebellion in ad 68, Galba reinforced the sole legion in his Spanish army (VI Victrix) by enrolling legio VII Hispana (Dio 55.24.3; Tacitus, Histories 2.11, 3.22; AE 1972, 203 for the title). It is better known as VII Galbiana (Tacitus, Histories 2.86), but was soon re-titled Gemina, ‘Twin’, suggesting that it was merged with another legion, probably because of the heavy casualties it suffered at the second battle of Cremona in ad 69 (cf. Tacitus, Histories 3.22). (cid:23) © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com Another legion was formed in ad 68. The short-lived legio I Macriana was named after its founder, Clodius Macer, the rebellious governor of Africa. Galba had Macer murdered and disbanded the legion. It was subsequently reconstituted by Vitellius but we know nothing of its activities (Tacitus, Histories 1.11, 2.97). It was presumably disbanded again following the defeat of Vitellius. Legio II Adiutrix was recognized by Vespasian as a iusta legio in ad 70 (ILS 1989; Dio 55.24.3 for Vespasian as its founder). Like I Adiutrix, it drew its original complement from the navy, and is perhaps to be connected with the volunteers from the Ravenna fleet who ‘demanded service with the legions’, or the ad hoc legion of Vitellian marines that defected to the Flavians at Narnia (Tacitus, Histories 3.50, 55, 63). The two other new legions of Vespasian’s reign, IV Flavia Felix and XVI Flavia Firma, appear to have been reconstitutions of IV Macedonica and XVI Gallica, compromised by their adherence to Vitellius and involvement in the revolt of Civilis. Legio I Germanica also disappears from the army lists. Again, its Vitellian sympathies and collaboration with Civilis (Tacitus, Histories 4.12–37, 54ff.) probably resulted in its disbandment, but some of its personnel may have been enrolled into Galba’s legio VII, hence the new title of ‘Twin’ (Birley 1928). It is possible that it also received the remnant of legio XV Primigenia (the survivors of the detachment that fought for Vitellius in Italy), but the main body of the legion was destroyed in ad 70. After enduring a long siege in the fortress they shared at Vetera (modern Xanten in Germany), the starving and desperate legio XV Primigenia, and remainder of V Alaudae (the bulk of the legion was in Italy), surrendered to Civilis in ad 70. As the legionaries marched from their fortress, they were betrayed: Loyalty on the one hand, famine on the other, kept the besieged hesitating (cid:49)(cid:70)(cid:85)(cid:74)(cid:77)(cid:74)(cid:86)(cid:84)(cid:1)(cid:52)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:79)(cid:69)(cid:86)(cid:84)(cid:1)(cid:80)(cid:71)(cid:1)legio XV between honour and disgrace. As they thus wavered, their sources of food, Primigenia(cid:15)(cid:1)(cid:39)(cid:80)(cid:83)(cid:78)(cid:70)(cid:69)(cid:1)(cid:74)(cid:79) AD (cid:20)(cid:26)(cid:13)(cid:1)(cid:85)(cid:73)(cid:70)(cid:1) (cid:77)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:80)(cid:79)(cid:1)(cid:88)(cid:66)(cid:84)(cid:1)(cid:69)(cid:70)(cid:84)(cid:85)(cid:83)(cid:80)(cid:90)(cid:70)(cid:69)(cid:1)(cid:20)(cid:18)(cid:1)(cid:90)(cid:70)(cid:66)(cid:83)(cid:84)(cid:1) both usual and even unusual, failed them, for they had consumed their beasts (cid:77)(cid:66)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:83)(cid:1)(cid:66)(cid:85)(cid:1)(cid:55)(cid:70)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:83)(cid:66)(cid:15)(cid:1)ILS(cid:1)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:24)(cid:22)(cid:15)(cid:1) of burden, their horses, and all other animals, which, even though unclean and (cid:9)(cid:170) AD (cid:46)(cid:70)(cid:84)(cid:76)(cid:74)(cid:79)(cid:84)(cid:10) disgusting, necessity forced them to use. Finally, they tore up even shrubs and roots and grasses growing in the crevices of the rocks, giving thereby a proof at once of their miseries and of their endurance, until at last they shamefully stained what might have been a splendid reputation by sending a delegation to Civilis and begging for their lives. He refused to hear their appeals until they swore allegiance to the Empire of Gaul. He then stipulated for the booty of their camp and sent guards to secure the treasure, the camp followers, and the baggage, and to escort the soldiers as they left their camp empty-handed. When they had proceeded about five miles the German troops suddenly attacked and beset them as they advanced unsuspicious of any danger. The bravest were cut down where they stood, many were slain as they scattered; the rest escaped back to camp. Civilis, it is true, complained of the Germans’ action and reproached them for breaking faith shamefully. But whether this was mere pretence on his part, or whether he was unable to hold their fury in check is not certainly proved. His troops plundered the camp and set it on fire; the flames consumed all who had survived the battle. Tacitus, Histories 4.60 (cid:24) © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com (cid:42)(cid:86)(cid:77)(cid:74)(cid:86)(cid:84)(cid:1)(cid:46)(cid:66)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:83)(cid:79)(cid:86)(cid:84)(cid:13)(cid:1)(cid:66)(cid:1)(cid:87)(cid:70)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:83)(cid:66)(cid:79)(cid:1)(cid:80)(cid:71)(cid:1) legio I Minervia(cid:15)(cid:1)(cid:53)(cid:73)(cid:70)(cid:1)(cid:77)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:80)(cid:79)(cid:1)(cid:88)(cid:66)(cid:84)(cid:1) (cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:70)(cid:66)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:69)(cid:1)(cid:67)(cid:90)(cid:1)(cid:37)(cid:80)(cid:78)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:74)(cid:66)(cid:79)(cid:1)(cid:85)(cid:80)(cid:1)(cid:246)(cid:72)(cid:73)(cid:85)(cid:1) (cid:74)(cid:79)(cid:835)(cid:85)(cid:73)(cid:70)(cid:1)(cid:36)(cid:73)(cid:66)(cid:85)(cid:85)(cid:66)(cid:79)(cid:1)(cid:88)(cid:66)(cid:83)(cid:1)(cid:80)(cid:71) AD (cid:25)(cid:20)(cid:15)(cid:1) CIL(cid:835)(cid:57)(cid:42)(cid:42)(cid:42)(cid:1)(cid:25)(cid:19)(cid:23)(cid:24)(cid:66)(cid:15)(cid:1)(cid:9)(cid:170)(cid:1)(cid:41)(cid:66)(cid:79)(cid:79)(cid:74)(cid:67)(cid:66)(cid:77)(cid:19)(cid:18)(cid:10) It is unclear why legio V Alaudae fades from the army lists at this time. Fighting in Italy (impressively forcing XIII Gemina from the field at the first battle of Cremona), and with its small remainder besieged in Vetera, it was not involved in the collaboration with Civilis that so tainted other German legions. It may be that the legion suffered massive casualties at the second battle of Cremona (Tacitus, Histories 2.43 and 3.22).  A sole inscription has been taken to suggest that V Alaudae did survive the upheavals of ad 69–70 and was transferred to a new base in Moesia (IMS VI 41). The inscription actually commemorates a veteran of V Alaudae in a (cid:25) © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com colony at Scupi. A new base for the legion elsewhere in Moesia has been inferred from this (and Tacitus’ remark about defeated Vitellians being sent to Illyricum: Histories 3.35), but the colony, which included veterans from other Vitellian legions, may have been a gesture of reconciliation by Vespasian and need not imply that legio V Alaudae also relocated to the Balkans. The end of the legion has been linked with the catastrophic defeat of Cornelius Fuscus by the Dacians in ad 86. Dio implies that a legionary eagle standard was lost in this battle (68.9.3 – its recovery by Trajan), but the loss of an eagle need not equate to the destruction of a legion. The fate of V Alaudae remains unresolved. At least one legion was destroyed during the reign of Domitian, and another was created. The emperor created legio I Flavia Minervia (Dio 55.24.3), probably in connection with his war against the Chatti and conquest of the Agri Decumates in ad 82/3 (ILS 2279 gives original titles – Flavia was subsequently dropped – and suggests formation no later than ad 83). Domitian’s military fortunes were mixed, and in ad 92 the Sarmatians destroyed one of his legions (Suetonius, Domitian 6.1; Eutropius, Breviarium 7.23). The most likely candidate is XXI Rapax. In ad 89, along with legio XIV Gemina, with which it shared a fortress at Mogontiacum (Mainz), it supported the revolt of Antonius Saturninus, the governor of Upper Germany. Saturninus and his forces, presumably including the two legions, were defeated in battle. Domitian then banned the practice of brigading two legions in the same camp (cf. Suetonius, Domitian 6.2, 7.3). The disgraced XXI Rapax was consequently sent to another fortress. In ad 92/3, legio XXII Primigenia occupied Mogontiacum; XIV Gemina had been transferred to Pannonia, perhaps to fill a gap left by the annihilation of XXI Rapax. The emperor Trajan raised two legions, II Traiana Fortis and XXX Ulpia Victrix (Dio 55.24.3–4), for service in his Dacian Wars (ad 101–102 and 105–106). Another 50 years would pass before an emperor enrolled new legions (II and III Italica by Marcus Aurelius in ad 165, belatedly replacing legions destroyed in the intervening period). Duccius Rufinus, standard- The last mention of legio XXII Deiotariana is in a letter written by the bearer of legio VIIII Hispana. The Ninth Legion may have emperor Hadrian in ad 119. The emperor advises the praefectus (equestrian been destroyed at the battle governor) of Egypt on the rights of the sons of legionaries of XXII Deiotariana, of Elegeia in AD 161. RIB I 673. and its sister unit III Cyrenaica, to inherit the property of their fathers (BGU (© RHC Archive) I 140). Serving soldiers (probably including centurions) were not allowed to contract legal marriages until the end of the 2nd century ad, and any children born before honesta missio (honourable discharge) was granted were 9 © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com considered illegitimate. The unit is not included in the famous list of the legions inscribed on two columns in Rome (ILS 2288, probably dating to the reign of Antoninus Pius, or perhaps the start of the reign of Marcus Aurelius). Some suppose it met its end in Judaea during the Bar Kochba rebellion (ad 132–135); Dio implies heavy legionary casualties (69.13.1). Another possibility is the Alexandrian riots of ad 121/122, which were triggered by disputes between the native Egyptians over the appearance of the sacred bull, Apis (Historia Augusta, Hadrian 12.1). The disappearance of the Ninth Legion continues to fascinate. Legio VIIII Hispana did have a brush with disaster in ad 82, when the Caledonians broke into its camp (Tacitus, Agricola 26), but only fantasists and nationalists, clinging to the factoid deriving from Rosemary Sutcliff’s The Eagle of the Ninth, continue to assert that the legion was destroyed in Scotland in c. ad 117. The legion certainly existed after this date. Lucius Aemilius Karus’ tribunate in the legion cannot be dated before ad 122 (ILS 1077), and Numisius Iunior is unlikely to have served as tribunus laticlavius (senatorial tribune) before ad 140 (CIL XI 5670). The Ninth Legion left Britain early in the 2nd century ad; it is last recorded at its camp in York in ad 108 (RIB 665). It was based for a time at Nijmegen and may have been sent east to quell the Bar Kochba revolt (ad 132–135). An epitaph from Naples could suggest that the Ninth was brought up to full fighting strength by a transfer of marines from the fleet at Misenum (CIL X 1769). Like XXII Deiotariana, the legion is missing from the column lists in Rome (ILS 2288). Something catastrophic occurred to the legion between ad 140 (the tribunate of Numisius Iunior) and 161 (the accession of Marcus Aurelius and the latest date for the inscribing of the column lists in their original form). The battle of Elegeia in ad 161 may offer a solution to the mystery. As the Judaean rebellion was drawing to a close in ad 135, Cappadocia (eastern Turkey) came under pressure from the Alani, an Iranian people renowned for their cavalry (Dio 69.15.1). Flavius Arrian, the governor of Cappadocia, succeeded in repulsing the Alani with the legions XII Fulminata and XV Apollinaris and a substantial force of auxiliaries, but to guard against future incursions, it may have been considered prudent to add another legion to the garrison of the vulnerable province. The Ninth Legion, assuming it had been sent east to fight the Jews, could have provided a major reinforcement to the Cappadocian garrison. However, it should be noted that the governors of Cappadocia were not of a seniority to be entrusted with three legions; emperors were always wary of giving ambitious men too many soldiers. The Parthians invaded Armenia in ad 161. Sedatius Severianus, governor of neighbouring Cappadocia, moved to expel them, but his army, apparently composed of a little more than a single legion, was surrounded at Elegeia. With their massive superiority in archers, the Parthians pinned the Romans down for three days. Severianus despaired and committed suicide, as did his chief centurion. The leaderless legion was then destroyed (Dio 71.2.1; Lucian, Alexander the False Prophet  27; How to Write History  21, 25–26). Cappadocia’s regular legions, XII Fulminata and XV Apollinaris, are known to have survived long after ad 161 and, with no other likely contenders (except, perhaps, XXII Deiotariana), it is tempting to identify the destroyed legion as VIIII Hispana (see Campbell 2010 for further discussion). (cid:18)(cid:17) © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com