Roman Legal Tradition and the Compilation of Justinian Law in Early Rome and the Republic The Twelve Tables Long before the Roman Republic was established Thus a committee of ten men called the decemvirs in 509 bce, the early Romans lived by laws devel- was established in 451 bce to write down the law for oped through centuries of custom. This customary law the first time. The work they produced in 449 bce, the (ius, in Latin) was handed down through generations Twelve Tables, documented the centuries-old customary and was considered by the Romans to be an inherited laws and became the foundation of Roman law as we aspect of their society as it had evolved from its earli- know it. The Twelve Tables touched on many areas of est days. Integral to the notion that this customary law law, not only the civil law that applied directly to citizens, was part of the fabric of early Roman culture was the but also areas such as public law and religious law, which fact that this law only applied to Roman citizens and applied to larger social constructs and institutions. was thus ius civile, or civil law. The Twelve Tables did not rewrite existing law or The citizens of Rome were di- create new law. Rather, they simply trans- vided into two classes: patricians, ferred established customary law (ius) the elite class who ruled Roman to a written form (lex). Neither did society, and plebeians, the common people. the Twelve Tables commit all existing One element of the patricians’ elite status law to written form. Instead, they fo- was that a group of patrician men called cused on specific facets that had led pontiffs were the ones who made decisions or could lead to dispute or disagree- and ruled in questions of customary law. ment, and they addressed the techni- Over time, plebeians came to see that because of the cal aspects of legal procedure, so that a citizen had a disparity between their positions, patricians tended to guide to the proper ways to pursue legal action. have some advantage in the legal decisions made by the While the Twelve Tables were destroyed during pontiffs who were their equals in status and power, and the Celtic invasions of the fourth century bce, their dissatisfaction grew with what many perceived to be legacy was very strong and much of their content re- the arbitrariness of the decisions made. This dissatis- mained known—Cicero (106–43 bce) the great states- faction arose during a period in the early Republic of man, jurist and orator of the late Republic, wrote that intense conflict within the social order, as plebeians he was made to memorize and recite their provisions agitated to gain more political and social equality and as a student. patricians attempted to keep a tight hold on their own power. The plebeians pressed for the law to be writ- ten down, so that they might better anticipate the deci- sions made by the patrician pontiffs and understand their basis in the established law. Above: Lupa Capitolina (c. 500–480 bce), bronze statue, Musei Capitolini, Rome. Legend holds that Rome was founded in 753 bce by Romulus and Remus, twin brothers born to a human mother but fathered by Mars, the god of War in Roman mythology. Abandoned on the banks of the Tiber River, they were found by a she-wolf (lupa) who nursed and cared for them until they were rescued by a shepherd. Right: The Temple of Saturn (498 bce), one of the oldest structures in the Roman Forum, dates back to the earliest days of the Roman Republic. Adjacent to these columns in the Forum are the remnants of the rostra, the speakers’ platform, on which the engraved tablets of the Twelve Tables were mounted for all to see. Evolution of the Roman Legal System and Classical Roman Law As the Roman republic grew and then trans- formed into an empire, its rulers faced the increasing challenge of governing an evermore diverse and far-flung population. Legal questions and disputes inevitably arose not only among Roman citizens, but with non-citizens living in or traveling through its territories, to whom the ius civile did not apply. This led to the develop- ment of the ius gentium (“law of nations”) and ius naturale (“natural law”). The ius gentium, or law of nations/peoples, was the body of laws that ap- plied to all people, foreigners and non-citizens as well as citizens, and was based upon the common principles and reasoning that civilized societies and humankind were understood to live by and share. These laws common to all people were Above: Ulpian, Roman jurist, manuscript illumination (c. 1300 ce), Umbria, Italy. further understood to be rooted in the ius natu- This illumination appears on a page from a medieval manuscript copy of Justinian’s Digest. The seated judge in the tiny portrait is Domitius Ulpianus, or Ulpian, a Ro- rale, or natural law, a category of law based on the man jurist and imperial official from the third century whose writings comprised principles shared by all living creatures, humans nearly a third of the Digest. ©2007 The Robbins Collection. as well as animals (such as laws pertaining to pro- Below: Relief of Justinian in the House chambers, US Capitol building. creation, or physical defense against attack). As these areas of law became more complex in tan- Emperor Justinian and the Corpus iuris civilis dem with the society that they governed, Roman rul- ers found themselves in need of a larger group of legal By the reign of the emperor Justinian I (ruled 527– authorities to give order to the system of legal formulas 565 ce), the vast territories of the Roman Empire and decisions. By the second half of the third in Europe, North Africa, and the East had century bce, a new professional group of for centuries been politically and cultur- specialists trained in law, the jurists, ally divided into the Western Em- emerged to meet this demand. The pire and the Eastern, or Byzantine, jurists did not participate in ad- Empire. The Western Empire ministering the law, but rather had seen a series of Germanic focused on interpreting and invasions that led to its final generating formal opinions collapse by 476 ce. So the on the law, as the pontiffs Roman Empire under Jus- had done in earlier days. It tinian’s rule was the East – was the work and scholarly though during his reign, the writings of generations of emperor waged a successful great jurists that elevated campaign to reconquer some Roman law to its apex during of the Western territories that the first two and a half centu- had been lost to Germanic in- ries ce, which is referred to as the vaders, such as Italy and parts of classical period of Roman law. Spain. Like other Roman emperors  Roman Legal Tradition and the Compilation of Justinian Left: Justinian I, Pan- dectarum codex Flo- rentinus (Florence: L.S. Olschki, 1988). This page is from a facsimile edition of the Pandectarum co- dex Florentinus, the oldest extant edition of Justinian’s Digest, copied just after its promulgation in the sixth century ce. As illustrated on this page, the manuscript is written in both Latin and Greek, re- flecting its origins in the Byzantine Em- pire, or Eastern Ro- man Empire, which Justinian ruled from Constantinople and where Greek was the lingua franca. before him, Justinian faced the challenge of maintaining but was created separately by legal scholars in 556 ce control and creating a sense of unity among far-flung to update the Code with new laws created after 534 ce territories where other cultures and languages besides and summarize Justinian’s own constitution. Latin (such as Greek) predominated. The compilation of Justinian is widely considered One of the ways that Justinian sought to unify the to be the emperor’s greatest contribution to the history empire was through law. Roman citizenship had been of Western society. Though largely forgotten for several extended to the empire outside of Italy in the third centuries after the fall of the Western Empire, Roman century ce, making inhabitants far and wide “citizens law experienced a revival that began at the University of Rome” and subject to its civil law. He formed a com- of Bologna, Italy, in the eleventh century and spread mission of jurists to compile all existing Roman law throughout Europe. Surviving manuscript copies of into one body, which would serve to convey the his- Justinian’s compilation were rediscovered and system- torical tradition, culture, and language of Roman law atically studied and reproduced. These new editions throughout the empire. This compilation is sometimes of the compilation, which were given the name Corpus referred to as “Justinian’s Code,” but in fact the Code iuris civilis (“body of civil law”), became the founda- was only one element. The compilation of Justinian tional source for Roman law in the Western tradition. actually consisted of three different original parts: the All later systems of law in the West borrowed heav- Digest (Digesta), the Code (Codex), and the Institutes ily from it, including the civil law systems of Western (Institutiones). The Digest (533 ce) collected and sum- continental Europe, Latin America, and parts of Africa marized all of the classical jurists’ writings on law and and to a lesser but still notable extent the English com- justice. The Code (534 ce) outlined the actual laws of mon law system, from which American law is princi- the empire, citing imperial constitutions, legislation pally derived. and pronouncements. The Institutes (535 ce) were a smaller work that summarized the Digest, intended as a textbook for students of law. A fourth work, the Novella (Novellae), was not a part of Justinian’s project, Roman Legal Tradition and the Compilation of Justinian  Glossary created separately to update the Code with new laws created after 534 ce and to summarize Justinian’s own Civil law (ius civile) – in the Roman Republic/Empire, constitution. the body of law that applied to citizens. Patricians – An elite class of citizens in Ancient Rome Code – Part of the compilation of Justinian, or Cor- who in its early days were exclusively eligible to hold pus iuris civilis, that outlined the actual laws of the the principle positions of power, such as senator or empire, citing imperial constitutions, legislation and magistrate. The word derives from the term pater (“fa- pronouncements. ther”), as it was applied to the original 100 heads of family that formed the first Roman Senate. Patrician Compilation of Justinian – The multi-part compila- status was hereditary. tion of Roman law ordered by Byzantine Emperor Jus- tinian I in the sixth century CE. In the eleventh century, Plebeians – Non-patrician citizens of Rome who this compilation came to be known as the Corpus iuris made up the greater part of the population. Plebeians civilis. did not enjoy privileged status and were unable to hold positions of power in early Rome. Decemvirs – A committee of ten Roman citizens formed in 451 bce to write down Roman law for the Twelve Tables – The first written compilation of Ro- first time in what was called the Twelve Tables man laws. Produced in 449 bce by the decemvirs and later lost/destroyed, the Twelve Tables and their legacy Digest – Part of the compilation of Justinian, or Cor- formed a foundation upon which the Roman legal sys- pus iuris civilis, that collected and summarized all of tem developed. the classical jurists’ writings on law and justice. Institutes – Part of the compilation of Justinian, or Corpus iuris civilis, that summarized the Digest and Select Bibliography/Further Reading was meant to be used as a textbook for students of law. Jurists – A professional class of legal experts who in- Brown, Peter. The World of Late Antiquity (New York: terpreted the law and wrote scholarly opinions and W.W. Norton & Company, 1989) 216 pp. treatises on law and justice in Ancient Rome. Frier, Bruce. American Philological Association Clas- Justinian I – Emperor who ruled the Eastern Ro- sical Resources Series, A Casebook on the Roman man Empire, or Byzantine Empire, from 527–565 ce Law of Delict (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989) 265 pp., and ordered all Roman law compiled into a multi-part and A Casebook on Roman Family Law (Oxford and work referred to as the compilation of Justinian and New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 594 pp. later named the Corpus iuris civilis. Johnston, David. Roman Law in Context (Cambridge: Law of nations (ius gentium) – The body of laws that Cambridge University Press, 1999) 153 pp. applied all people and was based upon the common Nicholas, Barry. An Introduction to Roman Law (Ox- principles and reasoning that civilized societies and ford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford Univer- humankind were understood to live by and share. In sity Press, 1969) 281 pp. the Roman Empire, the ius gentium were the laws that Stein, Peter. Roman Law in European History (Cam- applied to non-citizens and foreigners as well as Ro- bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) 137 pp. man citizens. Watson, Alan, ed. The Digest of Justinian, revised Eng- Natural law (ius naturale) – A category of law based lish-language edition (Philadelphia: University of upon the principles shared by all living creatures, hu- Pennsylvania Press, 1998). Two volumes. mans as well as animals. Novella – Part of the Corpus iuris civilis that was not part of the original compilation of Justinian but was ©2007 The Robbins Collection. Educational use only.  Roman Legal Tradition and the Compilation of Justinian Justinian I, Pandectarum codex Florentinus (Florence: L.S. Olschki, 1988). This is a page from a facsimile edition of the Pandectarum co- dex Florentinus, the oldest extant edition of Justinian’s Digest, copied just after its promulgation in the sixth century ce. This manuscript contains both Latin and Greek text, reflecting its origins in the Byzantine Empire, or Eastern Roman Empire, which Justinian ruled from Constantinople and where Greek was the lingua franca. Both languages are visible on the above page, switching from Latin to Greek in the bottom half of the left column, and switching back to Latin in the bottom half of the right column. The names of different jurists appear at the beginning of several of the paragraphs (Paulus, Ulpianus, Modestinus) and convey a sense of how the Digest was organized, with the commentaries of various jurists extracted and compiled into various sections, or “books,” according to subject. This page is from Book Twenty-Six, which concerns Tutors and Curators. In ancient Rome, the terms “tutor” and “pupil” referred not to teacher and student as they do today, but rather to guardian and ward. Tutors were responsible for the actions of their pupils until they reached the “age of reason” at puberty, after which time a “curator” was appointed as a protector and guardian of the fortune of the adolescent until the age of 25. Justinian I, Digest (Umbria, Italy, c.1300 ce), manuscript leaf. This is a page from a medieval manuscript copy of Justinian’s Digest. The seated judge in the tiny portrait is Domitius Ulpianus, or Ulpian, a Roman jurist and imperial official from the third century whose writ- ings comprised nearly a third of the Digest. The red text and illumination on this page mark the end of Book Nine of the Digest and the beginning of Book Ten, which deals with the regulation of estate boundaries and issues of property division and ownership. The text is formatted in a typical structure that scholarly manuscripts adopted over centuries, wherein the center block is the original text (in this case the Digest), and the surrounding text, usually in a smaller hand, is the gloss – notes and commentary on the original text written by later generations of scholars. Justinian I, Digest (Nuremberg: Anton Koberger, 1482). The first page of an early printed edition of the Digest, in which the introduction begins with the red text of the incipit: “In the name of our lord god Jesus christ: The Emperor Justinianus Caesar Flavius, Alamanicus Goticus Francus Germanicus Atticus Affricus Vandalicus, Pious, Fortunate, Renowned, Victor and Triumphator, ever augustus. To Theophilus and Dorotheus, illustrious and eminent men, Greetings.“ Theophilus and Dorotheus were two of the commissioners ap- pointed by Justinian to compile the Institutes as the Digest neared completion in 533 ce. Books such as this one, printed in the earliest years of printing (before 1501) are called incunables. This page demonstrates how in- cunables retained many of the formatting conventions that had evolved over time in manuscripts, such as the central text surrounded by the supporting gloss, the incipit and explicit lines (often, as here, in red print) that marked the beginning and end, respectively, of a book and its major sections, the illuminated initials and the gothic typeface. Spaces such as the one above the red incipit and central text were left by the printers for illuminations and initials to be added by hand.