Men-at-Arms Roman Army Units in the Eastern Provinces (1) 31 BC–AD 195 Raffaele D’Amato • Illustrated by Raffaele Ruggeri DR RAFFAELE D’AMATO is CONTENTS is an experienced researcher of the ancient and medieval military worlds. After achieving his first PhD in INTRODUCTION 3 Romano-Byzantine Law, and having collaborated with THE EASTERN PROVINCES 3 the University of Athens, he gained a second doctorate in • Chronology, 2nd century BC to 2nd century AD – the frontiers Roman military archaeology. of the Roman East He currently works in Istanbul at the Fatih University as DISTRIBUTION OF UNITS 7 visiting Professor for the TUBITAK (Turkish Government • Legiones – Auxilia – Numeri and Nationes Research Institution) on a • Table of identified titles, locations and dates 11 project linked to the arms and armour of Rome and Byzantium. ARMS, EQUIPMENT & CLOTHING 16 • Moesia Superior – Moesia Inferior – Dacia • Macedonia – Epirus & Achaia – Thracia RAFFAELE RUGGERI was • Cyrenaica & Creta born in Bologna where he • Bithynia & Pontus – Asia – Galatia – Lycia & Pamphylia – works and lives with his wife. Cilicia – Cappadocia After studying at the Fine • Colchis & Bosphorus Arts Academy he worked in • Syria – Cyprus – Judaea – Arabia – Aegyptus – Mesopotamia several areas of graphics and design before deciding to devote himself to illustration. SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 43 He has long been interested in military history and has PLATE COMMENTARIES 45 illustrated a number of books for Osprey, specializing in African subjects. INDEX 48 Men-at-Arms • 511 Roman Army Units in the Eastern Provinces (1) 31 BC – AD 195 Raffaele D’Amato • Illustrated by Raffaele Ruggeri Series editor Martin Windrow 9781472821768 MAA 511 Roman Army Units in the Eastern Provinces v4.indd 1 13/01/2017 13:32 Acknowledgements This electronic edition published in 2017 by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published in Great Britain in 2017 by Osprey Publishing It is my pleasant duty to acknowledge all those who helped me in this PO Box 883, Oxford, OX1 9PL, UK enterprise, either through assisting my access to collections, providing illustrations, helping me in my travels, or in many other ways. The available 1385 Broadway, 5th Floor, New York, NY 10018, USA space forbids more than a bare mention of those who are in many cases dear friends and valued colleagues. I wish to record my thanks to Dr Marina Mattei, E-mail: [email protected] curator of the Capitolini Musei, Rome; and, as always, to Prof Livio Zerbini of Ferrara University. Osprey is a trademark of Osprey Phublishing, a division of Bloomsbury In Turkey, to the General Directorate of the Turkish Ministry of Culture; the staffs Publishing Plc. of the Halûk Perk Müzesi and the Hisart Diorama Museum in Istanbul, and in particular Dr Av Halûk Perk, Dr Nejat Çuhadaroğlu, Prof Metin Gökçay, and Dr Osprey Publishing, part of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc Ahmet Yavuzkır of the Sanliurfa Museum. Dr Dick Ossemann courteously shared © 2017 Osprey Publishing Ltd. photos taken during our common and separate travels in the country. For the Egyptian material, to Dr Ashraf Nageh, Consultant of the Coptic Museum All rights reserved – Office of the General Secretary of the Supreme Council of Antiquities. While it You may not copy, distribute, transmit, reproduce or otherwise make available was impossible to visit the monuments in Cyrenaica, my thanks to Luca this publication (or any part of it) in any form, or by any means (including Bonacina for his splendid photos, and to Dr David Xavier of the Roman Officer without limitation electronic, digital, optical, mechanical, photocopying, Museum permanent collection, from which important items are published here printing, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of the for the first time. publisher. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this Regarding Romania, to Dr Radu Ciobanu, Professor in the Département des publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. Antiquités de l’Ecole Normale Supérieure de Paris, and scientific researcher in archaeology at the National Museum of Alba Julia; to Dr Gica Baestean, Director of the Archaeological Museum of Sarmizegetusa; and to Dr Constantin Chera, A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Director of the Museum of Natural History and Archaeology of Constanţa, who allowed me to make a careful analysis of the Ostrov helmets. Print ISBN: 978 1 47282 176 8 For the material from Serbia, Albania and Bulgaria, to Dr Aleksandra Sojic, Dr PDF ebook ISBN: 978 1 47282 179 9 Stoyan Popov of Sofia, and Mr Vatev, who assisted my access to important new ePub ebook ISBN: 978 1 47282 178 2 finds from Plovdiv. Special photographic credit goes to Dr Stefano Izzo, whose precious archive on Editor: Martin Windrow Roman arms and armours is always of great help, and also to the following Index by Sharon Redmayne museums and institutions: the Belgrade National Museum, National Museum of Typeset in Helvetica Neue and ITC New Baskerville Požarevac in Serbia, National Historical Museum of Albania in Tirana, Map by JB Illustrations Archaeological Museum of Ancient Corinth, Archaeological Museum of Thessalonika, Skopje Archaeological Museum of Macedonia, National History Originated by PDQ Media, Bungay, UK Museum in Sofia, Tropaeum Traiani Museum in Adamklisi, Istanbul Archaeological Museum, Aydin Archaeological Museum, Aphrodisia Osprey Publishing supports the Woodland Trust, the UK’s leading woodland Archaeological Museum, Side Archaeological Museum, Antalya Archaeological conservation charity. Between 2014 and 2018 our donations are being spent on Museum, Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography in Izmit, Amasra Museum, their Centenary Woods project in the UK. Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara, Kayseri Archaeological Museum, Trabzon Museum, Silifke Museum, Şanlıurfa’s Haleplibahçe Museum, Medusa To find out more about our authors and books visit www.ospreypublishing.com. Cam Eserler Muzesi of Gaziantep, Pierides Museum and Paphos District Here you will find our full range of publications, as well as exclusive online Archaeological Museum in Cyprus, National Museum of Archaeology of Crimea content, details of forthcoming events and the option to sign up for our in Simferopol, Cairo Egyptian Museum, Alexandria National Museum, the British newsletters. You can also sign up for Osprey membership, which entitles you to Museum, Archaeological Museum of the American University in Beirut, Israel Antiquities Authority and Prof Ronny Reich, Leptis Magna Museum, and a discount on purchases made through the Osprey site and Assaraya Alhamra Museum of Tripoli. access to our extensive online image archive. Finally, and as so often, my thanks for the inestimable help of my friends Dr Andrea Salimbeti and Dr Andrei Negin (I owe the latter for some superb TITLE PAGE 1st-century AD tombstone from Mainz, commemorating Maris illustrations), and for the valuable collaboration of my friend Massimo Bizzarri, Casitilius, a mounted archer of the Ala Parthorum et Araborum. It shows him my Agens in Rebus in the capital of the Empire. Last but not least, I am deeply with his servant carrying a bundle of javelins, confirming that such cavalrymen grateful to Raffaele Ruggeri for his tireless and inspired work to provide used a range of weapons; note also the bow-case hung from the saddle behind magnificent new reconstructions of the soldiers of Imperial Rome. I must also his leg. Also mentioned in the inscription are Maris’s father Casitus, and his acknowledge the great patience of the series editor Martin Windrow in preparing brother and comrade Masicates; all have Semitic names, but Tigranus, another the text for publication. soldier who contributed to this monument, was possibly Armenian, as was Variagnes, the commander of their auxiliary unit. (Photo courtesy Artist’s Note Dr Stefano Izzo) Readers may care to note that the original paintings from which the colour plates in this book were prepared are available for private sale. All reproduction copyright whatsoever is retained by the Publishers. All enquiries should be addressed to: Dedication [email protected] To all the peoples and races of the Near East, that they may remember the greatness of a common culture, and the importance of protecting the shared The Publishers regret that they can enter into no correspondence upon patrimony of all humankind. this matter. 9781472821768 MAA 511 Roman Army Units in the Eastern Provinces v4.indd 2 13/01/2017 13:32 ROMAN ARMY UNITS IN THE EASTERN PROVINCES (1) 31 BC – AD 195 INTRODUCTION The Eastern provinces were the rich core of the Roman Empire. Greece was the pearl of Greco–Roman civilization; Egypt was Rome’s granary; and Egypt and Asia boasted opulent capitals of the Roman commonwealth such as Alexandria, Antioch and Ephesus. The desert frontiers were natural barriers against Parthia, the great oriental enemy, but the city-states of Palmyra and Hatra were hubs for the caravan trade in precious silk. It was natural for Rome to provide these Hellenized areas, always menaced by external enemies and bloody insurrections, with strong garrisons, supported by local auxiliaries and paramilitary units in the Hellenistic tradition. The Eastern frontier was, under Trajan, the theatre of Rome’s last wave of expansion, and the vulnerability of the Danubian limes demanded the constant presence of large numbers of troops. The Pontic region, the Caucasus and Armenia were arenas where Rome contended with the influence of Parthia and the Steppe peoples. In the East the Roman army benefited from well-established local traditions of metal-working and the production of military equipment. Long military presence in these areas, the recruitment of local Embossed, masked helmet from manpower, the employment of irregulars, and collaboration with allied Durostorum, Moesia Inferior, end nations all influenced the introduction of weapons and accoutrements of 1st century AD. The mask is into Roman forces which became a mosaic of traditional Roman of the type that appeared at the equipment, adopted local designs, and improvisations. end of the Flavian dynasty, with a high-mounted parietal hinge. See Plate B2. (National Museum THE EASTERN PROVINCES of History, Sofia; author’s photo, courtesy of the Museum) Chronology, 2nd century BC to 2nd century AD 168 BC The Romans conquer Amphipolis, which becomes capital of Macedonia Prima. Mid-2nd century BC Macedonia becomes a Roman provincia with Thessalonika as seat of the Roman proconsul. 146 BC Destruction of Corinth; creation of the province of Achaia. 133–129 BC Constitution of the province of Asia. 74 BC Cyrenaica becomes a province. 74– 67 BC The western Pontic cities, conquered by Varro Terentius Lucullus, governor of Macedonia, are probably placed under his successors’ authority. 3 9781472821768 MAA 511 Roman Army Units in the Eastern Provinces v4.indd 3 13/01/2017 13:32 The provinces of the Roman 64–62 BC Pompey the Great creates the provinces of Asia, Empire c. AD 117 (plus the client Bithynia, Pontus, Cilicia and Syria. Bosphoran kingdom north of the 63 BC Pompey and his army enter Jerusalem, invited in Black Sea, Pontus Euxinus). Under during a civil war in the Hasmonean kingdom the Principate (Empire) provinces were classed as either ‘Imperial’ of Israel. or ‘senatorial’. The former were 43–27 BC Constitution of the provinciae of Cilicia (new the strategic border provinces, constitution), Lycia and Pamphilia. governed by legates appointed 30 BC Egypt becomes provincia Aegyptus, ruled by an by the Emperor and more or less Imperial praefectus of equestrian rank. heavily garrisoned with legions and auxiliary units. The senatorial 27 BC Octavian Caesar takes titles Augustus and Princeps provinces formed the more as, in all but name, the first Emperor. Epirus is peaceful inner core around the placed under the jurisdiction of the senatorial Mediterranean, each governed province of Achaia, except for northern part by a proconsul appointed by the assimilated into Macedonia. senate, with garrisons that seldom included legions. Of the provinces 25 BC Galatia is transformed from an allied kingdom covered in this book, Macedonia, into a province. Achaia, Asia, Bithynia and Pontus, AD 1–15 Creation of the new province of Moesia. The Cyrenaica and Creta, and Cyprus territory of today’s Dobruja is placed under the were classed as senatorial. client Odrysian Kingdom of Thrace, but related Note that the western limits of the provinces covered in this Greek coastal cities are annexed to the Empire. book are those of Dacia, Moesia, AD 6 Judaea is annexed as a province. Epirus and Cyrenaica. Provinces AD 14 Death of Augustus, succeeded by Tiberius. west of these are discussed in AD 17 Cappadocia is transformed into a province. MAA 506, Roman Army Units in AD 34–36 War with Parthia. the Western Provinces (1). (Map by JB Illustrations) AD 37 Death of Tiberius, succeeded by Gaius ‘Caligula’. 4 9781472821768 MAA 511 Roman Army Units in the Eastern Provinces v4.indd 4 13/01/2017 13:32 AD 41 Assassination of Caligula, succeeded by Claudius. AD 46 On the death of King Rhoemetalces III of Thrace an anti-Roman revolt is crushed by Gallic troops. The kingdom, with the southern Thracian territories, is annexed to the Empire as the province of Thracia. AD 47–50 Tomis (Constanţa, on the Black Sea coast of modern Romania) becomes the headquarters of the governor of Moesia. AD 53 The Parthians invade Armenia. AD 54 Death of Claudius, succeeded by Nero. AD 58–63 Campaigns against the Parthians in Armenia. AD 66 Outbreak of ‘First Jewish Revolt’. AD 67 T. Plautius Silvanus Aelianus subjugates the Sarmatian Roxolanae, Dacians and Bastarnae, and imposes Roman authority over the western coast of the Black Sea north of the lower Danube. AD 68–69 Suicide of Nero; brief successions of Galba, Otho and Vitellius; after civil wars, during which he invades Moesia, Vespasian secures the throne. AD 70 Siege and fall of Jerusalem. Veterans of Legio VIII Augusta settle Deultum, the only colony of free Roman citizens in Thracia. AD 72 Campaign in Commagene. AD 79 Death of Vespasian, succeeded by Titus. AD 73 Fall of Masada ends First Jewish Revolt. AD 81 Death of Titus, succeeded by Domitian. AD 85 Dacians under Decebalus invade Moesia. AD 86 Domitian divides provincia Moesia into Moesia Superior, west of Tsibrita river, with capital at Singidunum, and Moesia Inferior, with capital at Tomis. AD 86–89 Campaigns against Dacians. AD 96 Assassination of Domitian, succeeded by Nerva. AD 98 Death of Nerva, succeeded by Trajan. AD 101–102 Wholesale reorganization of Moesia Inferior; First Dacian War. AD 103–114 Epirus becomes a separate province, under a procurator Augusti; it includes the northern Ionian Islands of Corfu, Lefkada, Ithaca, Cephalonia and Zakynthos. AD 105–106 Second Dacian War; conquered, Dacia becomes a province. AD 106 Creation of province of Arabia in north-west part of peninsula. AD 114–117 War against Parthia; annexation of Armenia and Mesopotamia. Revolts in Judaea and Egypt. AD 117 Death of Trajan, succeeded by Hadrian. AD 117–138 Cappadocia, with capital at Caesarea (Kayseri), includes Colchis, Armenia Minor and most of Pontus Polemoniacus. 5 9781472821768 MAA 511 Roman Army Units in the Eastern Provinces v4.indd 5 13/01/2017 13:32 AD 135–136 Suppression of Bar Kochba’s ‘Second Revolt’ in Judaea; the province is transformed into that of Syria Palaestina, with capital at Caesarea Maritima. AD 138 Death of Hadrian, succeeded by Antoninus Pius. AD 157–158 Campaign in Dacia. AD 161 Death of Antoninus, succeeded by Marcus Aurelius. AD 162–166 Campaigns against the Parthians. AD 180 Death of Marcus Aurelius, succeeded by Commodus. AD 192 Assassination of Commodus leads to civil wars between rival claimants. AD 193 Nicopolis ad Istrum and Marcianopolis, previously belonging to Thracia, are incorporated into Moesia Inferior. AD 195 During civil wars Septimius Severus invades Mesopotamia. AD 197 Septimius Severus secures throne, and resumes campaigns in Parthia. The frontiers of the Roman East To stave off the constant threat from the powerful Parthian kingdom Helmet from the River Jordan, Augustus relied on diplomacy, safeguarding Roman interests by mid-1st century AD. Despite sponsoring various client kings of ‘buffer’ states, of whom Herod the the damage the magnificent Great of Judaea (r. 40–4 BC) is perhaps the best known. However, strong embossed decoration is still clear, including figures of winged Roman forces also remained available, and the successes of Nero’s Victory, chariots, trophies, and a general Gn. Domitius Corbulo in AD 58 and 63 allowed the installation general. Stylistically it anticipates of pliable kings in both Armenia and Parthia. The Roman Caucasus the later Nawa helmets from (Colchis, on and inland from the south-east Black Sea coast north of Roman Syria – see page 36. Cappadocia), and the northern Black Sea coast (Chersonesus Tauricus), (Pergamon Museum, Berlin; drawing by Dr Andrei Negin) were placed under the jurisdiction of Cappadocia and Moesia Inferior respectively. In southern Crimea (Taurica) the Romans exercised direct control from a base at Charax, or through the allied Bosphoran kingdom. In Egypt, transformed into an Imperial province, troops were settled to deal with local unrest and raids from the Nubian kingdom. During the 1st century AD small posts (praesidia) – e.g. Didymoi, Dios, Compasi, Mons Claudianus, etc. – were built about every 30km (19 miles) along two caravan roads leading from Koptos (now Quft) on the Nile to Myos Hormos (Quseir), and to Berenike, two important harbours on the Red Sea coast. The eastern Danube was the focus of particular attention. The Romans regarded the Danube as a natural frontier between the Empire and the Barbaricum, so Trajan’s conquest of Dacia was a singular event – Rome’s only stable conquest north of that river. In this region, especially in Moesia Inferior, Imperial policy was grounded on a sophisticated understanding of two co-existing cultures: the Dacian Getic and the 6 Pontic Greek. While coastal fortresses preserved their own culture and 9781472821768 MAA 511 Roman Army Units in the Eastern Provinces v4.indd 6 13/01/2017 13:32 institutions for longer, Roman posts along the frontier (e.g. Novae, Durostorum, Troesmis, Noviodunum, Oescus) and inside the province (Ibida, Trophaeum Traiani) provided strong centres of Roman influence. Permanent garrisons were the most important tool for the integration of indigenous peoples, especially in relatively peaceful provinces where the soldiers maintained relations with the civil population. Around the fortress of Trophaeum Traiani a large number of settled veterans played an important role in ‘Romanization’, and in Tomis veterans and officials, seafarers and marines dedicated statues and monuments to the divinities of the classical Greco-Roman pantheon. As early as 140–120 BC the Via Egnatia was built across Macedonia to facilitate military access, becoming a link between West and East. Along it, for the first two centuries of the Principate, the cities of Thessalonika, Veroia, Calindoia, Philippi and Apollonia prospered under Roman rule. The cosmopolitan character of Thessalonika, which was a transport, commercial, military and administrative hub of great importance, favoured the interchange of religious beliefs, among them the cult of Mithras, a god of Iranian origin particularly worshipped among the lower ranks of the Roman army. DISTRIBUTION OF UNITS The Eastern territories were garrisoned by legions supported by auxiliary units; the latter might often be recruited locally for their skills in the use of particular weapons, for instance the Iturean, Hamian and Cretan Embossed Roman cavalry helmet of Weiler typology, 1st – 2nd century AD, recovered from a grave at Pamuk Mogila, Thracia. (National Archaeological Museum, Plovdiv; drawing by Dr Andrei Negin) 7 9781472821768 MAA 511 Roman Army Units in the Eastern Provinces v4.indd 7 13/01/2017 13:32 archers. As in the West, the elite of the auxiliary troops were the cavalry alae (regiments). (Note: For reasons of space, the reader is referred to Men-at-Arms 506, Roman Army Units in the Western Provinces (1), for basic information on the recruitment, character and titling of legions and auxiliary units.) Legiones For the early Imperial period, from Augustus to Nero, the only legionary camps that are well known are those in Egypt. Under Augustus, Egypt was initially defended by three legions, but one was soon sent to Syria, raising that province’s garrison to four legions. During the whole 1st century AD the legions were generally still a mobile force, dispatched when needed (either entire, or as detached vexillationes) to contribute to task forces, especially in the second half of the century. During the constitution of the province of Moesia, Legiones IIII Scytica and V Macedonica were quartered in the Timocului and Moravei valleys. Socketed and tanged arrowheads, After the victories of Nero’s general Corbulo the southern Black Sea 1st – 2nd century AD, from Nicomedia in Bithynia. Sites port of Trapezus (Trabzond) became a major logistical base. Legio XII across the Eastern provinces have Fulminata (‘Lightning-bolt’) established its permanent camp at Melitene yielded countless arrowheads, in Cappadocia, ready to face any invasion from the East. A frontier road in a wide variety of designs linked all the legionary and auxiliary camps running from that city to and materials. (Archaeological the Upper Euphrates, and during the Flavian period an extensive road Museum, Izmit; author’s photo, courtesy of the Museum) network also connected the Danubian legions with the Euphrates. In 8 9781472821768 MAA 511 Roman Army Units in the Eastern Provinces v4.indd 8 13/01/2017 13:32