Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology VOLUME 199 Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Editor David M. Whitacre Editorial Board Lilia A. Albert, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico (cid:127) Charles P. Gerba, Tucson, Arizona, USA John Giesy, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada (cid:127) O. Hutzinger, Bayreuth, Germany James B. Knaak, Getzville, New York, USA James T. Stevens, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA Ronald S. Tjeerdema, Davis, California, USA (cid:127) Pim de Voogt, Amsterdam, The Netherlands George W. Ware, Tucson, Arizona, USA Founding Editor Francis A. Gunther VOLUME 199 Coordinating Board of Editors Dr. David M. Whitacre, Editor Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 5115 Bunch Road Summerfi eld North, Carolina 27358, USA (336) 634-2131 (PHONE and FAX) E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Herbert N. Nigg, Editor Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology University of Florida 700 Experiment Station Road Lake Alfred, Florida 33850, USA (863) 956-1151; FAX (941) 956-4631 E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Daniel R. Doerge, Editor Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 7719 12th Street Paron, Arkansas 72122, USA (501) 821-1147; FAX (501) 821-1146 E-mail: [email protected] ISBN: 978-0-387-09807-4 e-ISBN: 978-0-387-09808-1 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-09808-1 Library of Congress Control Number: 2008935184 © 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. 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Printed on acid-free paper 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 springer.com Foreword International concern in scientific, industrial, and governmental communities over traces of xenobiotics in foods and in both abiotic and biotic environments has justi- fied the present triumvirate of specialized publications in this field: comprehensive reviews, rapidly published research papers and progress reports, and archival docu- mentations. These three international publications are integrated and scheduled to provide the coherency essential for nonduplicative and current progress in a field as dynamic and complex as environmental contamination and toxicology. This series is reserved exclusively for the diversified literature on “toxic” chemicals in our food, our feeds, our homes, recreational and working surroundings, our domestic animals, our wildlife and ourselves. Tremendous efforts worldwide have been mobilized to evaluate the nature, presence, magnitude, fate, and toxicology of the chemicals loosed upon the earth. Among the sequelae of this broad new emphasis is an undeniable need for an articulated set of authoritative publications, where one can find the latest important world literature produced by these emerging areas of science together with documentation of pertinent ancillary legislation. Research directors and legislative or administrative advisers do not have the time to scan the escalating number of technical publications that may contain articles important to current responsibility. Rather, these individuals need the background provided by detailed reviews and the assurance that the latest information is made available to them, all with minimal literature searching. Similarly, the scientist assigned or attracted to a new problem is required to glean all literature pertinent to the task, to publish new developments or important new experimental details quickly, to inform others of findings that might alter their own efforts, and eventu- ally to publish all his/her supporting data and conclusions for archival purposes. In the fields of environmental contamination and toxicology, the sum of these concerns and responsibilities is decisively addressed by the uniform, encompassing, and timely publication format of the Springer triumvirate: Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology [Vol. 1 through 97 (1962–1986) as Residue Reviews] for detailed review articles concerned with any aspects of chemical contaminants, including pesticides, in the total environ- ment with toxicological considerations and consequences. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (Vol. 1 in 1966) for rapid publication of short reports of significant advances and discoveries in the fields v vi Foreword of air, soil, water, and food contamination and pollution as well as methodology and other disciplines concerned with the introduction, presence, and effects of toxicants in the total environment. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (Vol. 1 in 1973) for important complete articles emphasizing and describing original experimental or theoretical research work pertaining to the scientific aspects of chemical contaminants in the environment. Manuscripts for Reviews and the Archives are in identical formats and are peer reviewed by scientists in the field for adequacy and value; manuscripts for the Bulletin are also reviewed, but are published by photo-offset from camera-ready copy to provide the latest results with minimum delay. The individual editors of these three publications comprise the joint Coordinating Board of Editors with referral within the Board of manuscripts submitted to one publication but deemed by major emphasis or length more suitable for one of the others. Coordinating Board of Editors Preface The role of Reviews is to publish detailed scientific review articles on all aspects of environmental contamination and associated toxicological consequences. Such articles facilitate the often-complex task of accessing and interpreting cogent scien- tific data within the confines of one or more closely related research fields. In the nearly 50 yr since Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (formerly Residue Reviews) was first published, the number, scope and complexity of environmental pollution incidents have grown unabated. During this entire period, the emphasis has been on publishing articles that address the presence and toxicity of environmental contaminants. New research is published each yr on a myriad of environmental pollution issues facing peoples worldwide. This fact, and the routine discovery and reporting of new environmental contamination cases, creates an increasingly important function for Reviews. The staggering volume of scientific literature demands remedy by which data can be synthesized and made available to readers in an abridged form. Reviews addresses this need and provides detailed reviews worldwide to key scientists and science or policy administrators, whether employed by government, universities or the private sector. There is a panoply of environmental issues and concerns on which many scien- tists have focused their research in past yr. The scope of this list is quite broad, encompassing environmental events globally that affect marine and terrestrial ecosystems; biotic and abiotic environments; impacts on plants, humans and wild- life; and pollutants, both chemical and radioactive; as well as the ravages of environmental disease in virtually all environmental media (soil, water, air). New or enhanced safety and environmental concerns have emerged in the last decade to be added to incidents covered by the media, studied by scientists, and addressed by governmental and private institutions. Among these are events so striking that they are creating a paradigm shift. Two in particular are at the center of ever-increasing media as well as scientific attention: bioterrorism and global warming. Unfortunately, these very worrisome issues are now super-imposed on the already extensive list of ongoing environmental challenges. The ultimate role of publishing scientific research is to enhance understanding of the environment in ways that allow the public to be better informed. The term “informed public” as used by Thomas Jefferson in the age of enlightenment vii viii Preface conveyed the thought of soundness and good judgment. In the modern sense, being “well informed” has the narrower meaning of having access to sufficient informa- tion. Because the public still gets most of its information on science and technology from TV news and reports, the role for scientists as interpreters and brokers of scientific information to the public will grow rather than diminish. Environmentalism is the newest global political force, resulting in the emer- gence of multi-national consortia to control pollution and the evolution of the environmental ethic. Will the new politics of the 21st century involve a consortium of technologists and environmentalists, or a progressive confrontation? These matters are of genuine concern to governmental agencies and legislative bodies around the world. For those who make the decisions about how our planet is managed, there is an ongoing need for continual surveillance and intelligent controls, to avoid endangering the environment, public health, and wildlife. Ensuring safety-in-use of the many chemicals involved in our highly industrialized culture is a dynamic challenge, for the old, established materials are continually being displaced by newly developed molecules more acceptable to federal and state regulatory agencies, public health officials, and environmentalists. Reviews publishes synoptic articles designed to treat the presence, fate, and, if possible, the safety of xenobiotics in any segment of the environment. These reviews can either be general or specific, but properly lie in the domains of analytical chemistry and its methodology, biochemistry, human and animal medicine, legisla- tion, pharmacology, physiology, toxicology and regulation. Certain affairs in food technology concerned specifically with pesticide and other food-additive problems may also be appropriate. Because manuscripts are published in the order in which they are received in final form, it may seem that some important aspects have been neglected at times. However, these apparent omissions are recognized, and pertinent manuscripts are likely in preparation or planned. The field is so very large and the interests in it are so varied that the Editor and the Editorial Board earnestly solicit authors and sug- gestions of underrepresented topics to make this international book series yet more useful and worthwhile. Justification for the preparation of any review for this book series is that it deals with some aspect of the many real problems arising from the presence of foreign chemicals in our surroundings. Thus, manuscripts may encompass case studies from any country. Food additives, including pesticides, or their metabolites that may persist into human food and animal feeds are within this scope. Additionally, chemical contamination in any manner of air, water, soil, or plant or animal life is within these objectives and their purview. Manuscripts are often contributed by invitation. However, nominations for new topics or topics in areas that are rapidly advancing are welcome. Preliminary com- munication with the Editor is recommended before volunteered review manuscripts are submitted. Summerfield, North Carolina D.M.W. Contents 1 Assessing the Discharge of Pharmaceuticals Along the Dutch Coast of the North Sea ............................................................................ 1 N. Walraven and R.W.P.M. Laane 2 Methods for Deriving Pesticide Aquatic Life Criteria......................... 19 Patti L. TenBrook, Ronald S. Tjeerdema, Paul Hann, and Joseph Karkoski 3 Platinum Group Elements in the Environment: Emissions and Exposure ......................................................................... 111 Aleksandra Dubiella-Jackowska, Żaneta Polkowska, and Jacek Namieńnik Index ................................................................................................................ 137 ix Chapter 1 Assessing the Discharge of Pharmaceuticals Along the Dutch Coast of the North Sea N. Walraven and R.W.P.M. Laane Contents 1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1 2 Methods: Data Inventory and Emissions Calculations ........................................................ 3 2.1 Data Inventory............................................................................................................. 3 2.2 Load Calculations ....................................................................................................... 4 3 Results: Pharmaceutical Emissions in the Netherlands ....................................................... 6 3.1 Occurrence and Loads of Pharmaceuticals in Surface-, Sewage-, and Industrial Water in the Netherlands ...................................................................... 6 3.2 Mass Balance of Pharmaceutical Loads ..................................................................... 12 3.3 Pharmaceuticals Versus OSPAR Priority Substances ................................................. 13 3.4 Environmental Impact of Discharged Pharmaceuticals .............................................. 13 4 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 15 References .................................................................................................................................. 16 1 Introduction The presence of pharmaceutical chemicals in the environment was mentioned in the late 1970s by Highnite and Azarnoff (1977) , and in the mid-1980s by Richardson and Bowron (1985) and Rogers et al. (1986) . However, little attention was paid to these substances as potential environmental pollutants until the early 1990s (Weigel 2003). Stan and Linkerhägner ( 1992) were among the first to identify high concen- trations of clofibric acid, a metabolite of the lipid-regulating agents of the pharma- ceuticals clofibrate and etofibrate in groundwater. Several research groups studied and reported the presence of a vast array of pharmaceutical residues, often called PPCPs (pharmaceutical and personal care products) (Carbella et al. 2007) , in municipal wastewater, surface water, groundwater, and drinking water at nanogram per liter (ng L −1 ) to microgram per liter (µg L −1 ) concentration levels (Stan et al. 1 994; Hirsch et al. 1 996, 1 999; Sta n and Heberer 1 996; Stumpf et al. 1 996; Buser N. Walraven and R.W.P.M. Laane (*ü) DELTARES/UvA , 2600 MH Delft , The Netherlands E-mail: remi.laane@deltares D.M. Whitacre (ed.) Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Volume 199, 1 doi: 10.1007/978-0-387-09808-1_1, © Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2008