Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology VOLUME 184 Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Continuation of Residue Reviews Editor George W. Ware Editorial Board Lilia A. Albert, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico D.G. Crosby, Davis, California, USA ⴢ Pim de Voogt, Amsterdam, The Netherlands O. Hutzinger, Bayreuth, Germany ⴢ James B. Knaak, Getzville, NY, USA Foster L. Mayer, Gulf Breeze, Florida, USA ⴢ D.P. Morgan, Cedar Rapids, Iowa, USA Douglas L. Park, Washington DC, USA ⴢ Ronald S. Tjeerdema, Davis, California, USA David M. Whitacre, Summerfield, North Carolina ⴢ Raymond S.H. Yang, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA Founding Editor Francis A. Gunther VOLUME 184 Coordinating Board of Editors DR. GEORGE W. WARE, Editor Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 5794 E. Camino del Celador Tucson, Arizona 85750, USA (520) 299-3735 (phone and FAX) DR. HERBERT N. NIGG, Editor Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology University of Florida 700 Experimental Station Road Lake Alfred, Florida 33850, USA (941) 956-1151; FAX (941) 956-4631 DR. DANIEL R. DOERGE, Editor Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 7719 12th Street Paron, Arkansas 72122, USA (501) 821-1147; FAX (501) 821-1146 Springer New York: 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA Heidelberg: Postfach 10 52 80, 69042 Heidelberg, Germany Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 62-18595. Printed in the United States of America. ISSN 0179-5953 Printed on acid-free paper.  2005 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, Inc., 233 Spring St., New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, com- puter software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is for- bidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights. Printed in the United States of America. ISBN 0-387-22398-3 SPIN 10954799 springeronline.com Foreword International concern in scientific, industrial, and governmental communities over traces of xenobiotics in foods and in both abiotic and biotic environments has justified the present triumvirate of specialized publications in this field: comprehensive reviews, rapidly published research papers and progress reports, and archival documentations. These three international publications are inte- grated and scheduled to provide the coherency essential for nonduplicative and current progress in a field as dynamic and complex as environmental contamina- tion and toxicology. This series is reserved exclusively for the diversified litera- ture on “toxic” chemicals in our food, our feeds, our homes, recreational and working surroundings, our domestic animals, our wildlife and ourselves. Tre- mendous efforts worldwide have been mobilized to evaluate the nature, pres- ence, magnitude, fate, and toxicology of the chemicals loosed upon the earth. Among the sequelae of this broad new emphasis is an undeniable need for an articulated set of authoritative publications, where one can find the latest impor- tant world literature produced by these emerging areas of science together with documentation of pertinent ancillary legislation. Research directors and legislative or administrative advisers do not have the time to scan the escalating number of technical publications that may contain articles important to current responsibility. Rather, these individuals need the background provided by detailed reviews and the assurance that the latest infor- mation is made available to them, all with minimal literature searching. Simi- larly, the scientist assigned or attracted to a new problem is required to glean all literature pertinent to the task, to publish new developments or important new experimental details quickly, to inform others of findings that might alter their own efforts, and eventually to publish all his/her supporting data and con- clusions for archival purposes. In the fields of environmental contamination and toxicology, the sum of these concerns and responsibilities is decisively addressed by the uniform, encompass- ing, and timely publication format of the Springer-Verlag (Heidelberg and New York) triumvirate: Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology [Vol. 1 through 97 (1962–1986) as Residue Reviews] for detailed review articles concerned with any aspects of chemical contaminants, including pesticides, in the total envi- ronment with toxicological considerations and consequences. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (Vol. 1 in 1966) for rapid publication of short reports of significant advances and discoveries in the fields of air, soil, water, and food contamination and pollution as well as v vi Foreword methodology and other disciplines concerned with the introduction, presence, and effects of toxicants in the total environment. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (Vol.1 in 1973) for important complete articles emphasizing and describing original experimental or theoretical research work pertaining to the scientific aspects of chemical contaminants in the environment. Manuscripts for Reviews and the Archives are in identical formats and are peer reviewed by scientists in the field for adequacy and value; manuscripts for the Bulletin are also reviewed, but are published by photo-offset from camera- ready copy to provide the latest results with minimum delay. The individual editors of these three publications comprise the joint Coordinating Board of Editors with referral within the Board of manuscripts submitted to one publica- tion but deemed by major emphasis or length more suitable for one of the others. Coordinating Board of Editors Preface Thanks to our news media, today’s lay person may be familiar with such envi- ronmental topics as ozone depletion, global warming, greenhouse effect, nuclear and toxic waste disposal, massive marine oil spills, acid rain resulting from atmospheric SO2 and NOx, contamination of the marine commons, deforesta- tion, radioactive leaks from nuclear power generators, free chlorine and CFC (chlorofluorocarbon) effects on the ozone layer, mad cow disease, pesticide residues in foods, green chemistry or green technology, volatile organic com- pounds (VOCs), hormone- or endocrine-disrupting chemicals, declining sperm counts, and immune system suppression by pesticides, just to cite a few. Some of the more current, and perhaps less familiar, additions include xenobiotic transport, solute transport, Tiers 1 and 2, USEPA to cabinet status, and zero- discharge. These are only the most prevalent topics of national interest. In more localized settings, residents are faced with leaking underground fuel tanks, movement of nitrates and industrial solvents into groundwater, air pol- lution and “stay-indoors” alerts in our major cities, radon seepage into homes, poor indoor air quality, chemical spills from overturned railroad tank cars, suspected health effects from living near high-voltage transmission lines, and food contamination by “flesh-eating” bacteria and other fungal or bacterial toxins. It should then come as no surprise that the ‘90s generation is the first of mankind to have become afflicted with chemophobia, the pervasive and acute fear of chemicals. There is abundant evidence, however, that virtually all organic chemicals are degraded or dissipated in our not-so-fragile environment, despite efforts by environmental ethicists and the media to persuade us otherwise. However, for most scientists involved in environmental contaminant reduction, there is indeed room for improvement in all spheres. Environmentalism is the newest global political force, resulting in the emer- gence of multi-national consortia to control pollution and the evolution of the environmental ethic. Will the new politics of the 21st century be a consortium of technologists and environmentalists or a progressive confrontation? These matters are of genuine concern to governmental agencies and legislative bodies around the world, for many serious chemical incidents have resulted from acci- dents and improper use. For those who make the decisions about how our planet is managed, there is an ongoing need for continual surveillance and intelligent controls to avoid endangering the environment, the public health, and wildlife. Ensuring safety- vii viii Preface in-use of the many chemicals involved in our highly industrialized culture is a dynamic challenge, for the old, established materials are continually being dis- placed by newly developed molecules more acceptable to federal and state regu- latory agencies, public health officials, and environmentalists. Adequate safety-in-use evaluations of all chemicals persistent in our air, foodstuffs, and drinking water are not simple matters, and they incorporate the judgments of many individuals highly trained in a variety of complex biological, chemical, food technological, medical, pharmacological, and toxicological disci- plines. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology continues to serve as an integrating factor both in focusing attention on those matters requiring further study and in collating for variously trained readers current knowledge in specific important areas involved with chemical contaminants in the total environment. Previous volumes of Reviews illustrate these ob- jectives. Because manuscripts are published in the order in which they are received in final form, it may seem that some important aspects of analytical chemistry, bioaccumulation, biochemistry, human and animal medicine, legislation, phar- macology, physiology, regulation, and toxicology have been neglected at times. However, these apparent omissions are recognized, and pertinent manuscripts are in preparation. The field is so very large and the interests in it are so varied that the Editor and the Editorial Board earnestly solicit authors and suggestions of underrepresented topics to make this international book series yet more useful and worthwhile. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology attempts to pro- vide concise, critical reviews of timely advances, philosophy, and significant areas of accomplished or needed endeavor in the total field of xenobiotics in any segment of the environment, as well as toxicological implications. These reviews can be either general or specific, but properly they may lie in the domains of analytical chemistry and its methodology, biochemistry, human and animal medicine, legislation, pharmacology, physiology, regu- lation, and toxicology. Certain affairs in food technology concerned specifi- cally with pesticide and other food-additive problems are also appropriate sub- jects. Justification for the preparation of any review for this book series is that it deals with some aspect of the many real problems arising from the presence of any foreign chemical in our surroundings. Thus, manuscripts may encompass case studies from any country. Added plant or animal pest-control chemicals or their metabolites that may persist into food and animal feeds are within this scope. Food additives (substances deliberately added to foods for flavor, odor, appearance, and preservation, as well as those inadvertently added during manu- facture, packing, distribution, and storage) are also considered suitable review material. Additionally, chemical contamination in any manner of air, water, soil, or plant or animal life is within these objectives and their purview. Preface ix Normally, manuscripts are contributed by invitation, but suggested topics are welcome. Preliminary communication with the Editor is recommended before volunteered review manuscripts are submitted. Tucson, Arizona G.W.W. Table of Contents Foreword ....................................................................................................... v Preface .......................................................................................................... vii Organohalogen Contaminants in Delphinoid Cetaceans ............................. 1 MAGALI HOUDE, PAUL F. HOEKSTRA, KEITH R. SOLOMON, AND DEREK C.G. MUIR Environmental Contamination and Human Exposure to Lead in Brazil ........................................................................................................ 59 MONICA M.B. PAOLIELLO AND EDUARDO M. DE CAPITANI Arsenic Speciation and Toxicity in Biological Systems ............................. 97 KAZI FARZANA AKTER, GARY OWENS, DAVID E. DAVEY, AND RAVI NAIDU xi Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 184:1–57 © Springer 2005 Organohalogen Contaminants in Delphinoid Cetaceans Magali Houde, Paul F. Hoekstra, Keith R. Solomon, and Derek C.G. Muir Contents I. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 II. Persistent Organohalogen Contaminants ............................................................ 2 A. Physicochemical Properties ............................................................................ 2 B. Global Transport ............................................................................................. 3 C. Sources and Spatial Distribution .................................................................... 4 III. Marine Mammals and PHCs ............................................................................... 5 A. Biotransformation ........................................................................................... 6 B. Pattern of Accumulation ................................................................................. 6 C. Mechanisms of Action .................................................................................... 7 D. Impacts on Physiological Systems ................................................................. 9 IV. Studying PHCs in Delphinoids: Methods and Results ....................................... 11 A. Stranded, By-Catch, and Hunted Animals ..................................................... 11 B. Free-Ranging Delphinoid Populations ........................................................... 35 IV. Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 40 Summary .................................................................................................................... 41 Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................... 41 References .................................................................................................................. 41 I. Introduction For centuries, marine mammals have been the cornerstone of industrial and economic activities in many countries, as well as an important part of the subsis- tence harvesting of several aboriginal populations. As a consequence of human- related activities such as commercial whaling, habitat degradation, and declining fish stocks, as well as accidental capture in fishing gear and physical and acous- tical disturbance by ship traffic, many populations of marine mammals have been depleted compared to historic population estimates (Reeves et al. 2003). An additional threat to the health of marine mammals is contamination by chemical pollutants. Assessment of chemical residues in marine mammal tissues Communicated by George W. Ware. M. Houde ⴢ K.R. Solomon ⴢ D.C.G. Muir University of Guelph, Department of Environmental Biology, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada M. Houde ⴢ D.C.G. Muir ( ) National Water Research Institute, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Rd., Burlington, Ontario, L7R 4A6, Canada P.F. Hoekstra Golder Associates Ltd., Environmental Sciences Group, 2390 Argentina Road, Mississauga, Ontario, L5N 5Z7, Canada 1