Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology VOLUME 107 Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Continuation of Residue Reviews United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Drinking Water Health Advisories Editor George W. Ware Editorial Board F Bro-Rasmussen, Lyngby, Denmark DG Crosby, DavIs, Callforma G H Hudson, OvenJse, BelgIUm H. Frehse, Leverkusen-Bayerwerk, Germany H.F. Lmskens, NIJmegen, The Netherlands 0. Hutzmger, Bayreuth, Germany· N N Melmkov, Moscow, U.S.S R M L Leng, Midland, Michigan R. Mestres, MontpellIer, France D P Morgan, Oakdale, Iowa P De Pletn-TonellI, Milano, Italy Founding Editor Francis A. Gunther VOLUME 107 Springer-Verlag New York Berlin Heidelberg London Paris Tokyo Coordinating Board of Editors GEORGE W. WARE, Editor Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology College of Agriculture Umverslty of Anzona Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA (602) 621-7201 HERBERT N. NIGG, Editor Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Agncultural Research and Education Center Umverslty of Florida 700 Expenmental Station Road Lake Alfred, Florida 33850, USA (813) 956-1151 ARTHUR BEVENUE, Editor Archives of EnVironmental ContammatlOn and Toxicology 35 Fifteenth Avenue San Mateo, CalIfornia 94402, USA (415) 572-1029 New York 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA Heidelberg 6900 Heidelberg I, Postfach 105 280, West Germany Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 62-18595 ISSN 0179-5953 © 1989 by Spnnger-Verlag New York Inc Softcover reprmt of the hardcover I st edition 1989 All rIghts reserved This work may not be translated or copied In whole or In part WIthout the wntten permissIOn of the publIsher (Spnnger-Verlag, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10010, USA), except for bnef excerpts In connectIOn wIth reviews or scholarly analYSIS Use In connectIOn wIth any form of InformatIOn storage and retrIeval, electromc adaptatIOn, computer software, or by Similar or diSSimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed IS forbidden The use of general descnptlve names, trade names, trademarks, etc In this publIcatIOn, even If the former are not especially IdentIfied, IS not to be taken as a sign that such names, a; understood by the Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordIngly be used freely by anyone ISBN-13 978-1-4684-7085-7 e-ISBN-13 978-1-4684-7083-3 DOL 101007/978-1-4684-7083-3 Foreword Global attention in scientific, industrial, and governmental communities to traces of toxic chemicals in foodstuffs and in both abiotic and biotic environ ments has justified the present triumvirate of specialized publications in this field: comprehensive reviews, rapidly published progress reports, and archival documentations. These three publications are integrated and scheduled to pro vide in international communication the coherency essential for nonduplicative and current progress in a field as dynamic and complex as environmental con tamination and toxicology. Until now there has been no journal or other publica tion series reserved exclusively for the diversified literature on "toxic" chemicals in our foods, our feeds, our geographical surroundings, our domestic animals, our wildlife, and ourselves. Around the world immense efforts and many talents have been mobilized to technical and other evaluations of natures, locales, magnitudes, fates, and toxicology of the persisting residues of these chemicals loosed upon the world. Among the sequelae of this broad new emphasis has been an inescapable need for an articulated set of authoritative publications where one could expect to find the latest important world literature produced by this emerging area of science together with documentation of pertinent ancil lary legislation. The research director and the legislative or administrative adviser do not have the time even to scan the large number of technical publications that might con tain articles important to current responsibility; these individuals need the back ground provided by detailed reviews plus an assured awareness of newly developing information, all with minimum time for literature searching. Simi larly, the scientist assigned or attracted to a new problem has the requirements of gleaning all literature pertinent to his task, publishing quickly new develop ments or important new experimental details to inform others of findings that might alter their own efforts, and eventually publishing all his supporting data and conclusions for archival purposes. The end result of this concern over these chores and responsibilities and with uniform, encompassing, and timely publication outlets in the field of environ mental contamination and toxicology is the Springer-Verlag (Heidelberg and New York) triumVirate: Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (Vol. 1 in 1962 as Residue Reviews through Vol. 97 in 1986) for basically detailed review articles concerned With any aspects of chemical contaminants, including VI Foreword pesticides, in the total environment with their toxicological considerations and consequences. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (Vol. 1 in 1966) for rapid publication of short reports of significant advances and discoveries in the fields of air, soil, water, and food contamination and pollution as well as methodology and other disciplines concerned with the introduc tion, presence, and effects of toxicants in the total environment. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (Vol. 1 in 1973) for important complete articles emphasizing and describing original experimental or theoretical research work pertaining to the scientific aspects of chemical contaminants in the environment. Manuscripts for Reviews and the Archives are in identical formats and are sub ject to review, by workers in the field, for adequacy and value; manuscripts for the Bulletin are also reviewed but are published by photo-offset to provide the latest results without delay. The individual editors of these three publications comprise the joint Coordinating Board of Editors with referral within the Board of manuscripts submitted to one publication but deemed by major emphasis or length more suitable for one of the others. Coordinating Board of Editors Preface Scope and Purpose of the Health Advisory Program The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Office of Drink ing Water (ODW) Health Advisory Program was initiated to provide information and guidance to individuals or agencies concerned with potential risk from drinking water contaminants for which no national regulations currently exist. Health Advisories (HAs) are prepared for contaminants that meet two criteria: (1) the contaminant has the potential to cause adverse health effects in exposed humans, and (2) the contaminant is either known to occur or might reasonably be expected to occur in drinking water supplies. Each HA contains information on the nature of the adverse health effects associated with the contaminant and the concentrations of the contaminant that would not be anticipated to cause an adverse effect following various periods of exposure. In addition, the HA sum marizes information on available analytical methods and treatment techniques for the contaminant. History and Present Status The program was begun in 1978, and guidance was issued for the first 20 con taminants in 1979. At that time, the concentrations judged to be safe were termed "Suggested-No-Adverse-Response Levels" (SNARLs). These guidance values were retitled Health Advisories in 1981. To date, the USEPA has issued 48 HAs in final form, covering a wide variety of inorganic and organic con taminants and one microbial contaminant (Legionella). In addition, USEPA has issues draft HAs on 50 pesticides that are being studied in the USEPA National Pesticide Survey, and is preparing additional HAs on various unregulated vola tile organic chemicals, disinfectants and their by-products, and other inor ganic contaminants. Quality Assurance Initial drafts of each HA undergo a series of thorough reviews before they are released to the public. The general technical content and the risk assessment values are reviewed by a group of independent expert scientists, an ODW Toxico logical Review Panel, and any other USEPA offices with interest and expertise viii Preface in the contaminant. The draft HAs are also distributed for review and comment by the public. Each HA is revised in response to criticisms and suggestions received during the review process before being released in final draft form. Each HA is periodically updated as significant new information becomes available that may impact the original conclusions or guidance values. Acknowledgments The development of each HA involves the participation of many individuals. The following members of the Health Advisory Program are acknowledged for their valuable contributions. Michael B. Cook, Director, Office of Drinking Water Joseph A. Cotruvo, Ph.D., Director, Criteria and Standards Division, Office of Drinking Water Edward V. Ohanian, Ph.D., Chief, Health Effects Branch of Office of Drink ing Water Victor J. Kimm, Ph.D., Director, Office of Drinking Water (1975-1985) William Lappenbusch, Ph.D., Chief, Health Effects Branch, Office of Drink ing Water (1980-1985) Jennifer Orme, M.S., Health Advisory Program Coordinator Charles Abernathy, Ph.D. Maria Gomez-Taylor, Ph.D. Larry Anderson, Ph.D. Krishan Khanna, Ph.D. Ken Bailey, Ph.D. Peter Lassovsky, P.E. Ambika Bathija, Ph.D. Amal Mahfouz, Ph.D. Paul Berger, Ph.D. William Marcus, Ph.D. Steve Clark, P.E. Bruce Mintz, B.S. Robert Cantilli, M.S. James Murphy, Ph.D. Penelope Fenner-Crisp, Ph.D. Myron Ottley, Ph.D. Julie Du, Ph.D. Yogendra Patel, Ph.D. Susan Goldhaber, M.P.H. Robert Vanderslice, Ph.D. The members of the Health Advisory Program would like to acknowledge the assistance they have received from Kevin Gleason, Lori Gordon, Janet Nor mandy, John Glennon, and William Brattin of Life Systems, Inc., Jan Connery, Brana Lobel, and Heather Schroeder of Eastern Research Group, Inc., and Marlene Regelski of ECOS Management, Inc. List of Acronyms and Abbreviations AA Atomic absorption AADI Adjusted Acceptable Daily Intake ACGIH American Conference of Governmental and Industrial Hygienists ADI Acceptable Daily Intake ad lib ad libitum ae acid equivalent AWWA American Waterworks Association BUN blood urea nitrogen bw body weight CAG USEPA Carcinogen Assessment Group CAS Chemical Abstracts Service CDL Company Document Library CFR Code of Federal Regulations CHO Chinese hamster ovary Ci Curie CNS central nervous system DC District of Columbia DDT dichlordiphenyltrichloroethane DHHS United States Department of Health and Human Services dia diameter DNA deoxyribonucleic acid DWEL Drinking Water Equivalent Level EBCT empty bed contact time FAD Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration FSH follicle-stimulating hormone FWPCA Federal Water Pollution Control Act GAC granular-activated carbon GC gas chromatography GPT glutamate-pyruvate transaminase XII List of Acronyms and Abbreviations HA Health Advisory HCDD hexachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin HPLC high-performance liquid chromatography IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France IgA immunoglobulin A IgG immunoglobulin G ip intraperitoneal IRDC International Research and Development Corporation IV intravenous LDso median lethal dose LDH lactic dehydrogenase LH luteinizing hormone LOAEL Lowest -Observed-Ad verse-Effect Level LOEL Lowest-Observed-Effect Level MAC Maximum Allowable Concentration MCL Maximum Contamination Level MLE Maximum Likelihood Estimate MRID Microfiche Identification MS mass spectroscopy NADPH nicotine-adenine dinucleotide phosphate NAS National Academy of Sciences NCI National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health NOAEL No-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level NOEL No-Observed-Effect Level NRC National Research Council NTIS National Technical Information Service NTP National Toxicology Program OCDD octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin OCT ornithine carbamoyltransferase ODW Office of Drinking Water OPP USEPA Office of Pesticide Programs ORD USEPA Office of Research and Development OSHA U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration OTS USEPA Office of Toxic Substances PAC powdered-activated carbon ppm parts per million ppb parts per billion ppt parts per trillion