American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 Advanced Water Power Technology Development: Wave and Current Energy Technologies DOE SBIR (DE-SC0003571) Development of Wave Energy-Responsive Self-Actuated Blade Articulation Mechanism for an OWC Turbine Phase I: Performance Period: 02/2010 to 06/2010 (Completed) 1 Company and Project Information Concepts NREC (CN) 217 Billings Farm Road White River Junction, VT 05001-9486 Principal Investigator: Francis A. Di Bella, PE (781-937-4718; [email protected]) (Woburn, MA, Office) Phase II. Project Title: Development of Wave Energy-Responsive Self-Actuated Blade Articulation Mechanism for an OWC Turbine- Prototype Fabrication and Wind Tunnel Lab Test Topic Number: 6. Advanced Water Power Technology Development Subtopic Letter: C. Wave and Current Energy Technologies Water wave energy has 15 to 20 times more energy per square meter than wind or solar. (Ref: “Electric Power from Ocean Waves,” Wavemill Energy Corp.), and an oscillating water column (OWC) wave energy conversion system has the highest potential of all of the conceived energy converters to provide this renewable energy in the form of electric power. It is also well known by researchers that the efficiency of the air turbine used in OWC systems can be improved by adjusting the pitch or the blade angle of attack to best match the air and blade surface velocities, thus increasing the aerodynamic blade lift and rotor torque. All existing variable pitch control systems rely on electric/pneumatic/hydraulic feedback control systems to actuate the blade pitch. However, this approach is mechanically complex, unreliable, and costly. For this Phase I SBIR, Concepts NREC proposed a wave energy-responsive, self- actuating blade articulation system design that can use the aerodynamic forces derived from the incident air streams to provide the motive force that can instantaneously rotate the blade to its optimum position, providing maximum rotational rotor torque without additional feedback controls. 1.1 Phase I Results The Phase I SBIR effort completed the feasibility design, fabrication, and wind tunnel testing of a self- actuated blade articulation mechanism that uses a torsion bar and a lightweight airfoil to affect the articulation of the Wells airfoil. The articulation is affected only by the air stream incident on the airfoil. The self-actuating blade eliminates the complex and costly linkage mechanism that is now needed to perform this function on either a variable pitch Wells-type or Dennis-Auld air turbine. Using the results reported by independent researchers, the projected improvement in the Wells-type turbine efficiency is 20-40%, in addition to an increase in the operating air flow range by 50-100%, therefore enabling a smaller or slower single turbine to be used. 1.2 Phase II Plans The Concepts NREC (CN) project team will detail design and fabricate a prototype Wells-type turbine using the self-actuating, blade articulation design identified in Phase I. The prototype turbine will be 1 tested in MIT‟s Wright Brothers wind tunnel after its design is optimized by continued testing in CN‟s wind tunnel on a single blade mechanism. 1.3 Commercial Applications and Other Benefits The end result of this research will be the demonstration of the first self-actuated blade articulation mechanism that can improve the efficiency and operating range of a Wells turbine for OWC applications. 1.4 Technical, Economic, and Social Benefits of the Project The purpose of the proposed research is to increase the energy recovery from a wider range of incident wave energies by optimizing the performance of the OWC system. The increase in power generation is estimated to be as high as 40%, i.e., equivalent to the improvement in the energy efficiency of the turbine due to the self-actuated blade articulation mechanism. This increase in energy recovery is, in effect, a reduction in the cost per kW for an OWC system. This cost reduction improves the economics of the OWC application, and thus makes the system more attractive to entrepreneurial commercial developers and/or governmental or institutional funding agencies. The net benefit to the world is to make available another economically attractive and viable alternative, renewable energy resource that can be used to recover the projected 17.5 x 1012 kW-hr energy that is available from the world‟s oceans (Ref. 44). Assuming even a 0.1% utilization factor of the world‟s ocean energy, this is enough energy to power an additional 70 million households throughout the world. 1.5 Federal and Commercial Benefactors of Technology The US Department of Energy, major energy companies, and local power utilities will gain important benefits towards the advancement of this technology. This renewable technology has the potential to provide at least as much affordable clean energy as present wind turbines, with negligible environmental impact. As explained in Section 2.1, OWC systems are considered to be the most viable means of recovering the world‟s wave energy resources, and many have been prototyped and are under testing, either on the coastlines where wave energy content is high or as floating vessels. An improvement of up to 30% in the energy recovery would effectively reduce the cost per kW for the systems and make the economics of their application much more viable. 1.6 Proposed Final Product and Market Potential A large number of Oscillating Water Column (OWC) water wave energy recovery systems have been constructed over the past 30 years either on the shoreline, near the shoreline, or in the breakwater in a number of countries (Ref. 40). There are over 60 companies currently engaged in the development of ocean wave energy devices (Ref. 42). These systems include subsurface hydroturbines, oscillating buoys, OWCs, and many other devices. In general, near-shore OWCs have an overall efficiency of wave energy to electric power of 10 to 25% (Ref. 40), consisting of: 42% of the wave energy converted to pneumatic power, 65% of the pneumatic power converted to mechanical power, and 91% of the mechanical power converted to electric power. In the 1980s, relatively small demonstration systems, with ratings under 100 kW (Ref. 40) were conducted by several companies, but most were installed on coastlines, and thus, stationary with respect to the wave vertical velocity. However, in the early 2000s, interest in OWC technology significantly increased, with Oceanlinx Ltd., a world-renowned developer of OWC systems located in Sydney, Australia, taking a leading role Figure 1. Oceanlinx Ltd.’s first 300 kW unit and moving aggressively toward the development of 2 multi-megawatt wave farms. Their first 300 kW unit (Figure 1) is shown operating in Port Kembla, Australia, in 2000, followed by its most recent demonstration OWC (the Mark3 Prototype Component or Mk3PC), shown in Figure 2. Both of these systems are no longer in operation, but they do provide evidence of the entrepreneurship and advances that Oceanlinx has made in order to foster the commercial success of the OWC-style wave energy conversion system. Figure 2. Oceanlinx Ltd.’s Mark3 prototype component The final product from this development effort will be an advanced, unique variable pitch Wells-type air turbine using a self-actuated, blade articulation non-electrical mechanism. This self-actuated system is ideal for matching the transient behavior of air volume flow rate and pressures exhibited in OWC systems. However, the same self-actuating mechanism design is thought to be adaptable to all variable pitch air turbines that otherwise use an electric/pneumatic/hydraulic feedback control system to affect blade articulation. In an OWC application, the self-actuated, blade articulation system enables a “next- generation, advanced adaptive OWC” method to recover more energy from incident waves that have a wider range of incident wave amplitudes and periods interacting with the OWC. The net result is more energy to recover, and thus a more economic OWC on a per kWe and per annual kWh basis than existing systems. The market opportunity for this technology is very significant, given the increased interest in the use of large-scale, renewable energy in the face of depleting fossil fuel supplies. It has been estimated by the World Energy Council that the world‟s oceans can provide an annual energy equivalent of 17,500 TeraW-hrs. The 40% projected increase in recoverable energy per kWe rating for an OWC, if the proposed subsystem redesigns are implemented, translates directly into a 40% decrease in the cost per kWe for the system. This should enable the Return on Investment for an OWC system to be even more attractive for the entrepreneurial investor, governmental world body, or private funding agency. Wave energy is much more predictable (using advanced weather warnings) and more continuously available over 24 hours, even when compared to wind energy. The low-profile OWC design is also very friendly to the panorama even when installed close to shore. Based on a 0.1% utilization of the available ocean energy and a marketable 1% with nominal 10 MWe OWC modules, a market of 150 OWC systems per year can be substantiated and projected. A relevant excerpt from Oceanlinx‟s addendum to Concepts NREC‟s Commercialization Plan is given here as witness to Oceanlinx‟s interest in the development and commercialization of the self-actuated, blade articulated Wells turbine. “Because of the varying conditions at the proposed sites and the subsequent available wave power energy patterns, the design of the turbine needs to have a wide operational range. This is important in terms of the logistics of manufacture where the goal is to build one turbine for all site applications. The Self- Actuated Blade turbine has the widest operation range for this application thereby enabling the economics of scale for a return on investment as well as providing an earlier adoption of renewable 3 energy production. The cost per unit as well as maintenance and robustness of the turbine are all critical elements of the total system performance. Improving these design parameters means not only the large scale adoption of wave energy generation but an accelerated adoption based on the reduced cost of electrical generation which will attract further investment from commercial parties. Commercial arrangements with MECO (Maui Electric Company) are underway to install a Mark3 2.7MW OWC in Maui. This system would use the Concepts NREC turbine but only if the performance of the turbine is improved and the cost per unit decreased in comparison to other current technology turbines.” 2. SIGNIFICANCE, BACKGROUND INFORMATION, AND TECHNICAL APPROACH TO IMPROVING WAVE ENERGY RECOVERY EFFICIENCY 2.1 Identification and Significance of Initial Problem and Technical Approach 2.1.1 SBIR Background An oscillating water-air column (OWC) is one of the most technically viable and efficient options for converting wave energy into useful electric power. Referring to Concepts NREC‟s (CN) illustration of an OWC in Figure 3, the conversion of the wave energy into electric power entails four interrelated energy conversion stages: 1. conversion of the wave energy into the OWC water column motion, 2. conversion of the water column energy into pneumatic energy by compressing the entrapped air to pressures that are slightly above atmospheric pressure, 3. conversion of pneumatic power into mechanical rotating shaft power as the air flows through an inlet diffuser to the turbine-generator system, and 4. conversion of mechanical power into electrical power typically done using a bi-directional turbine such as a Wells turbine, an impulse turbine, or a Dennis-Auld turbine (such as invented by Oceanlinx Ltd. shown in Figure 4). Since the early 1980s, the Wells-type air turbine with fixed blades has been used almost as a standard turbine of choice for OWC applications due to its simplicity and robustness. A Dennis-Auld wind turbine was introduced by Oceanlinx Ltd. at the turn of the century as a more efficient turbine because of its use of articulating turbine blades. The electro-mechanical articulation was controlled by a control feedback system that responded to changes in the OWC chamber pressure due to the ascending and descending wave. In 2007, CN was commissioned by Oceanlinx Ltd. with private funding to develop a more robust and economical Dennis-Auld turbine for its OWC systems. CN and Oceanlinx Ltd. have since collaborated on other turbine developments for OWC applications. Figure 3. An illustration from a CN computer model of changes to a turbine subsystem that can be used to “tune” an OWC system for improved power recovery across a range of incident wave energy 4 The collaboration with Oceanlinx Ltd. emphasized the need by Concepts NREC to develop its own numerical model of an OWC system, one that could be used to help identify other potential wave energy improvement opportunities. The development of this engineering numerical model has since been aided by another STTR grant from DOE. In a very early phase of its research that was first publicly identified in its Phase I proposal, Concepts NREC identified an important parameter, a system Time Constant, T (units: seconds) that c analytically can be shown to characterize the optimum design point for an OWC as a function of wave period. Stated simply, the optimum energy recovery opportunity Figure 4. Blade actuation system used on a is when the OWC system is designed to have a Time Dennis-Auld turbine to rotate the blades in Constant, T equal to 1/6th the wave period, T . The response to air velocity c wave flow characteristics of the turbine along with other parameters of the OWC that define a Time Constant (T ) are given in Equation 1. The Time Constant is a characteristic time parameter, which represents the c pneumatic pressure decay within the OWC chamber. Using several simplifying assumptions that enable a “closed-form” classic, analytical solution, the percent (%) recoverable wave energy pneumatic power was presented for the first time by Concepts NREC, as graphically displayed in Figure 5. or: Eq. 1 where: and: for the first time, was identified as the flow coefficient for the OWC air chamber-turbine as an integrated system. A similar relationship for the dependency of the OWC flow rate on the OWC chamber pressure may also be used that considers the more familiar turbine operating characteristics. This is given in Equation 2. φ = K x Ψ Eq. 2 where: φ, Flow Coef. = Q,cfs/(ND3); Load Coef. Ψ = ΔP/ρ/(ND)2 and: in the formula K is a proportionality constant that depends on the type of turbine in use. In order to better catalogue other analytical revelations concerning various mechanical and electrical subsystems that could provide improvements in wave energy recovery for Oceanlinx‟s OWC systems, Concepts NREC classified two categories of improvements to OWC systems: MICRO Wave Energy Dynamics and MACRO Wave Energy Dynamics. MACRO Wave Energy Dynamics (pertaining to magnitude of wave period and amplitude): 1. “Tuning” the OWC turbine system so that the system operates at the theoretical maximum power recovery with respect to the OWC system‟s Time Constant, T .; c the design of a diffuser at the inlet and discharge of the bi- Figure 5. Effect of wave period (Twave) and wave height directional turbine that can have (Hwave) on percent recoverable OWC pneumatic power a variable aspect ratio so as to 5 optimize the diffuser‟s pressure recovery efficiency through the range of changing air flow rate and chamber pressure profiles. Once again, this will effect a change in the C for the composite turbine- v generator system. 2. Adjusting the oscillation of the OWC structure so that it is 180 degrees out of phase, with the incident wave using adaptive controls. This can be effected by damping the OWC via, for example, varying the projected area of the stabilizer-heave plates by adjusting the orientation of the plates; this is an interesting area for future research, but not part of the turbine-generator composite system options. MICRO Wave Energy Dynamics (pertaining to effects of wave cycles in OWC chamber) 1. The design of a variable aperture that works similar to the iris in the human eye to open and close the flow through the turbine and thus affect the velocity through the turbine blades, which would then affect the overall flow coefficient, C for the turbine system. The aperture would be installed at the v hub of the turbine and open from the outer radius to admit flow into the turbine, thus controlling the chamber pressure by maintaining flow control of the air though the turbine, which would then effect a variable flow coefficient for the turbine system. 2. The design of flexible blade profiles (along blade axis) that self-adapt to the instantaneous pressure in the OWC chamber, and thus, to the pressure at the leading edge of the turbine blade. 3. The design of an effective means of articulating the blade in order to continually optimize the aerodynamics of the turbine blade during each intake and discharge “stroke” of the wave. This is currently being explored via DOE funding. MICRO Wave Energy Dynamics (WED) system improvements are closely associated with how the ascending and descending wave fronts affect the chamber pressure and air volume flow rates. The MACRO WED system improvements are closely associated with how the amplitude and periods of the wave energy affect the dynamics of the OWC structure. An example of one such MICRO modification is the design of the Dennis-Auld turbine by Oceanlinx, along with the re-engineering contributions made by Concepts NREC. The Dennis-Auld turbine, shown in Figure 4, was considered a significant innovation when it was first introduced early in the decade as a replacement for the Wells-type turbine for OWC applications. It utilizes a mechanical torsion device to vary the pitch of the blades through a feedback control loop that measures the velocity, direction of the airflow, and inlet pressure. The variable pitch blades effect an increase in the efficiency of the turbine, particularly when the air flow rate through the turbine varies. Another MICRO modification is the adaptation of a Turbine Shutter Valve that can boost the pressure and air flow rate through the turbine, and thus increase its weighted (cycle) efficiency. This modification is the subject of another proposal. In order to quantify the improvements that can be achieved in each of these areas within each MACRO or MICRO category, it was necessary for Concepts NREC to development an “engineering-friendly” numerical model of an OWC wave energy conversion system that could be used as an effective engineering tool to affect the design of the OWC subsystems and predict the integrated performance as a complete system. Concepts NREC developed a novel means of modeling OWC performance that was heretofore unknown, or at least unreported in the technical literature, but that has been validated as accurate. Details of this model are provided in Section 2.3 of this report. The basis for this numerical model is as straightforward as its ability to provide greater physical insight into the behavior of an OWC system as it is acted upon by incident waves of fluctuating wave amplitudes and frequency. This improved insight leads to practical engineering solutions on how to increase wave energy capture. The algorithms used in the numerical model are based on the Conservation of Energy principle applied to the potential energy content of waves. Of particular importance to the use of this algorithm is the ability to use only the energy content of the wave as defined by kW/meter or energy per area, without the need to stochastically account for the variation of the wave frequency and amplitude as a function of time. There has also been considerable research performed by Concepts NREC, Oceanlinx Ltd., and other independent researchers to develop a more efficient air turbine that can be used with an OWC-type wave 6 energy conversion system. This effort is necessary in order to improve the capture efficiency from the wave after it has first transferred its potential and kinetic energy to the air column in the form of a very transient air chamber pressure and volume flow rate. These two operating parameters, flow rate and pressure, are the ones that all turbine devices require to be kept constant for maximum efficiency. The inherent nature of the OWC system is to have a cyclic profile of pressure, and consequently, volume flow rate, as may be observed in Figures 6a and 6b. Figure 6a and 6b. Cyclic profile of pressure and volume flow rate The consequence of the time variant pressure and flow rate is that the efficiency of the turbine changes. Most importantly, particularly for a Wells turbine, the air flow rates may be too high or too low, causing the turbine to stall at high air flow rates or have very poor efficiency at low flow rates, as may be seen in Figure 7. There has been considerable research into ways of improving the two serious drawbacks of a Wells turbine that otherwise is considered very robust and relatively inexpensive (and thus, suitable for OWC applications), efficiency and limited flow rate operating range of the Wells-turbine. Concepts NREC‟s survey of the technical literature as summarized in Table I clearly reveals the salient points made by a consensus of researchers that a variable-pitched Wells-type turbine cannot only improve the efficiency of the turbine, but also increase its operating range of air flow rate. The latter effect has the consequence of enabling a single turbine taking the place of two smaller and faster Wells turbines. As may be seen from Table I, turbine efficiency improvements from 20 to 40% (and as high as 50%) were noted by these independent researchers. Similarly, the technical literature identifies an increase in the operating range of as much as 300%, although a more reasonable and conservative increase of 50 to 100% is suggested in this proposal as the goal of the Phase II SBIR effort. Figure 7. Turbine efficiency during pressure and temperature transients during wave ascension and dissension 7 EffTecAtB oLf EU sIi.n gE VFaFrEiaCbTle O PFit cUhS aIsN CGit VedA iRnI TAeBchLnEi cPaIl TLiCteHr aAtuSr CeITED IN TECHNICAL LITERATURE CN's Sited Page No., Fig. Or Cited Increase Cited Increase in Noteable & Ref # Table No. in Range Turbine Eff. Relevant Quote 35 Fig.2 60% 44% 25 page 145 40% 12% 34 Fig. 7 61% 23% 2 Fig. 14 (0 to 24 degs) 100% 42% 2 Fig. 14 (0 to 11 degs) 287% 50% 30 Fig. 15 150% Experimental results with powered variable Pitch blades 32 Fig. 2 ( 0 to 5 deg.s) 33% 32 Fig. 4 ( 0 to 15 deg.s) 135% Variable pitch found to be a means of improving phase control 32 Fig. 5 ( 0 to 10 deg.s) 87% 36 Energy recovery increases from 28 to 82% due to phase control 33 Blade offset improves Range of Operation 40 Pitch control may accompany Bypass Valve to improve operating range 26 page 266 Inlet guide vanes and proper profile can improve eff by 17% 42 pg. 151 & 190 substantial improvement in time-weighted avg. of turbines but cost increases with varia ble pitch blades on Wells turbines The increase in operating range before airfoil stall is encountered has been verified by Concepts NREC‟s numerical modeling of a NACA0015 airfoil in the Phase I SBIR effort. In addition, based on Concepts NREC‟s numerical OWC model, variable pitch blades not only can increase the efficiency of the turbine as the air flow rate varies through the turbine, but also control of the pitch can change the system‟s Time Constant, T . The development of a self-actuating blade articulation system that uses the aerodynamic c forces of the air stream that is driving the turbine has been completed by Concepts NREC during turbine research conducted in the Phase I SBIR. The variety of air turbines and the use of inlet guide vanes or variable pitch control are summarized in Figure 9 (Ref. 17). Shown in Figure 8 are five wave power turbine configurations capable of operating with bi-directional air flows. While other design concepts have been proposed that provide unidirectional flows through the use of switching valves, only bi-directional designs were examined. These configurations are: 1. conventional Wells turbine, 2. Wells turbine with guide vanes, 3. Wells turbine with pitch-controlled blades, 4. biplane Wells turbine with guide vanes, 5. impulse turbine with pitch- controlled guide vanes, and 6. Oceanlinx Ltd. reversible pitch blade. One of the MICRO Wave Energy Conversion options that has been studied by Concepts NREC and Oceanlinx is the use of a blade articulation linkage design that would improve the manufacturing cost of a Dennis-Auld turbine for OWC applications. The performance of various turbine concepts is best examined in terms of the velocity flow coefficient ( , defined as the maximum (or sometimes actual) axial velocity of the air divided by the mean (or sometimes maximum tip) circumferential velocity of the turbine blade. Given the recognized benefits of a variable pitch control as summarized in Table I, Oceanlinx Ltd. (formerly Energetech) embarked on further improvements in blade design using non- standard airfoils with the capability to provide high torque levels over a wide range in flow. Concepts NREC collaborated with Oceanlinx Ltd. in a privately funded engineering effort in 2007. The intention of the design was to maximize the energy conversion efficiency over the complete cycle. The DOE provided assistance to Concepts NREC and Oceanlinx to successfully test the mechanical integrity of the blade articulation linkage, as well as the blade bearings and seals that are contained in a closed cartridge, for ease of replacement while in service and later repair. However, the system still needed an expensive linkage system to accomplish the improvement in turbine efficiency over the less-expensive Wells turbine. 8 (a) Basic Wells Turbine (c) Wells Turbine with Pitch Control (b) Wells Turbine with Guide Vanes (d) Biplane Wells Turbine with Guide Vanes (e) Impulse Turbine with Pitch-Controlled Guide Vanes Figure 8. Five different turbines considered for use with OWC systems In an attempt to eliminate the linkage system, and thus to reduce the cost and increase the reliability of the turbine, Concepts NREC began to research how a similar blade articulation device might be designed for a Wells-type turbine, in order to provide the increased efficiency, but without the complicated linkage system. However, the general consensus of researchers is that the simple Wells-type turbines are prone to low weighted efficiency (due to the high variations in air flow rate and narrow operating regime) and poor starting ability unless a variable blade pitch design is adopted. Unfortunately, an inexpensive way of providing the variable pitch option without compromising the cost of the Wells turbine, and that could be used outside the laboratory and in an actual OWC application, has not been provided. A 2003 wave energy study (Ref. 41) indicated that “If the rotor blade pitch angle is adequately controlled, a substantial improvement in time-weighted average turbine efficiency can be achieved. Of course, on the downside, it is a more complex and more expensive machine compared to the mechanically simple and robust conventional Wells turbine”. To emphasize this point, WaveGen, Ltd (Ref. 29, c/o Dr. W. K. Tease) did develop a laboratory scale system of a Wells-type turbine that uses a variable pitch blade with a feedback control system. Figure 10 illustrates their design. Their conclusions cited the improvement in the weighted efficiency of the turbine and an increase in the range of air flow that the Figure 9. A comparison of turbine efficiencies turbine could handle before a phenomenon called 9 “turbine stall” prevents power recovery from the turbine. They concluded their laboratory testing with the intent of reducing the cost of the electric actuation and feedback control system, as well as to detail a design that could be practically implemented in actual OWC application. Therefore, the objective of the Phase I SBIR effort by Concepts NREC was to develop a means of providing a cost-effective, variable pitch control of a Wells-type turbine in order to increase its efficiency and operating air flow rate range in OWC applications. The Concepts NREC design team has succeeded in providing a feasible design. In fact, the CN self-actuated, blade articulation system conceived in Phase I of the SBIR, and as identified in this Phase II SBIR proposal, accomplishes the goals as Figure 10. WaveGen Ltd.’s identified in the WaveGen technical paper (Ref. 29). It is also important Wells-type turbine to note that the CN design for a self-actuating, blade articulation system is an advance over any that can be found in this field of study. Concepts NREC‟s computational modeling of an OWC system has shown that the OWC chamber air velocity and volume flow rates through the turbine constantly change due to the inherent nature of the OWC energy conversion system. The proposed innovation takes advantage of this transient air flow rate by having the blade articulation mechanism use the same aerodynamic forces, derived from the blade‟s in situ, albeit changing, air velocity to instantaneously provide the motive force to uniquely articulate each blade as an active “real-time” feedback control. The blade articulation action is now directly coupled with the actual cyclic changes in the air velocity that is passing each individual blade, and does so without the use of an intermediate, electrical feedback control system. In summary, CN‟s evolution in blade articulation uses the in situ aerodynamic forces on each blade to solve the problem of having a means of instantaneously and precisely synchronizing the articulation of the turbine blade to the cyclic changes in the OWC air flow rate. When developed, the wave energy-responsive, self-actuating blade will eliminate the current complex mechanical linkage mechanism that is now needed to perform this function on the Dennis-Auld air turbine. The consequence of a self-articulating turbine blade is two-fold: first, a reduction in the complexity of the blade articulation mechanism that reduces the cost of the OWC turbine by as much as 50% compared to the Dennis-Auld type turbine, and second, an increase in the turbine‟s efficiency and operating range for the Wells-type turbine due to an optimum angle of attack between the blade and the air velocity vector. The efficiency and range improve by 20 to 40% and 100-150%, respectively. The elimination of the blade articulation linkage and the feedback control system to regulate the variable pitch blades is thought to decrease the cost per kW ($/kW) of the electro-mechanical systems by as much as 40%, i.e., equivalent to the increase in the projected efficiency of the variable pitch Wells- type air turbine. 2.1.2 Executive Summary of SBIR Results: A cost-effective, self-actuated blade articulation mechanism for a Wells-type turbine in OWC Applications The primary objective of Phase I was to prepare a preliminary design of a wave-responsive, self-actuating turbine blade articulation mechanism utilizing the aerodynamically induced pressure distribution across the blade to create a self-stabilizing blade profile that results in maximizing the turbine performance under varying flow conditions. This was achieved through an iterative integrated systems analysis of the nonlinear OWC system and the self-adaptive turbine. Based on this analysis, the detailed design specifications were established, and a preliminary design was prepared. The specific questions to be answered focused on defining the coupled relationship between the blade pitch and blade pressure distribution that results in maximizing the turbine efficiency at each flow condition. Listed below are the specific questions (taken directly from the original proposal) and answered in the Phase I SBIR: a. What are the critical design parameters of each subsystem that impact the overall system performance? 10