Residues of Now The Cultures and Politics of Contemporary U.S. Post-Apocalyptic Novels by Brent Ryan Bellamy A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English Department of English and Film Studies University of Alberta © Brent Ryan Bellamy, 2014 Abstract This study examines the significance of the boom of U.S. post-apocalyptic novels after the American Century. This dissertation argues that U.S. post-apocalyptic novels tend to be reactionary and political conservative, but that they can still be read critically for what I call their residues. I approach these novels as residual in three ways: first, in terms of residual social ontology within the post- apocalyptic novel; second, in their residual generic form; and, third, in the residues of their historical present. Residues of Now describes and investigates the field of contestation generated by U.S. post- apocalyptic novels in order to reveal the struggle between their reactionary and progressive logics. Chapter I compares contemporary post-apocalyptic novels to those from the height of the American Century, developing a tropology of the post-apocalyptic novel. The catalogue, the last man, and the enclave are tropes that feature prominently in exemplary texts by George Stewart, Richard Matheson, and Walter Miller Jr. from the post World War II period and which appear reconfigured in Stephen King’s The Stand (1978) as well as in the post-apocalyptic novels today. Chapter II assesses the post-apocalyptic novel as a political sub-genre of science fiction by reading Brian Evenson’s novel Immobility (2012) against Darko Suvin’s definitive description of science fiction as the literature of cognitive estrangement and Fredric Jameson’s elaboration of cognitive mapping. Evenson’s novel describes the fearful immobile body transported through space always seeking a beginning in a way that captures not just the immobility of its protagonist, but the politics of immobility that lie at the heart of the post-apocalyptic novel itself. Chapter III investigates the spatial dynamics of David Brin’s The Postman (1985) and Kim Stanley Robinson’s The Wild Shore (1984). It introduces the frontier and accumulation by dispossession as central concerns in the mid-1980s through Cormac McCarthy’s Blood Meridian (1985). The Postman and The Wild Shore each still operate, in crucially different ways, on the frontier ii iii myth. Their difference effectively captures the contest at the heart of the post-apocalyptic conceit between conservative, nationalist reaction and progressive, world building vision. Chapter IV interrogates the prevalence of the family and the child in Cormac McCarthy’s The Road (2006). It frames its discussion of McCarthy’s novel with a slipstream novel, Total Oblivion, More or Less (2009), by Alan DeNiro and a survivalist fiction, Patriots (2009) by James, Wesley Rawles. Each novels features birth prominently, which helps me to develop a narrative theory of reproductive futurism, which is inspired by the work of Rebekah Sheldon. I find that, whether reactionary (Rawles), critical (DeNiro), and ambiguous (McCarthy), reproductive futurism subtends the post-apocalyptic novel. I conclude Residues of Now with an epilogue that explores possible future directions for research, including the role of energy in post-apocalyptic novels that are concerned primarily with environmental degradation. Preface I have felt that the dialectical method can be acquired only by a concrete working through of detail, by a sympathetic internal experience of the gradual construction of a system according to its inner necessity. — Fredric Jameson1 I came to this work as many of my generation have—I noticed a cultural fixation with the apocalyptic and I started to ask questions. It seems humorous to me now that I decided against studying stories that centered on the apocalypse itself. I decided that I could not commit myself to research such a sensationalist genre where everyone seems to survive, if only by the skin of their teeth. How was I supposed to know that a similar brand of survival was precisely what I would come to expect from the U.S. post-apocalyptic novel as well? The upshot of my focus became that the novels I read rarely moved as quickly the apocalypse stories I wanted to avoid. Something about the slowness of the decay in post-apocalyptic novels has come to intrigue me. Why does the apocalyptic event itself seem to be less knowable, by the characters as well as by readers of the genre? Of course some novels declared the end loudly, but I became interested in the ones that barely seemed apocalyptic at all, they were much more like life today and were all the more haunting for it. Asking questions of this particular form of the novel, that is letting it pose questions itself, led me to the convergence that would become an abiding concern in this dissertation. As Frank Kermode points out in The Sense of an Ending (1966), history has never ceased to be interested by the apocalypse partially because it “can be disconfirmed without being discredited,” which is a “part of its extraordinary resilience.”2 Kermode also wrote that “when we survive, we make little images of 1 Fredric Jameson, Marxism and Form (Princeton: Princeton UP, 1971), xi. 2 Frank Kermode, The Sense of an Ending (Oxford: Oxford UP, 2000), 8. iv v moments which have seemed like ends; we thrive on epochs.”3 My interest, following Kermode’s lead, investigates what this current phase of apocalyptic concern could be attributed to, and what in particular this might tell us about the relationship between cultural forms and history today. That is, what do the “little images” tell us about our own epoch? I demarcate the United States as a geographic boundary for my dissertation for practical reasons, but also for methodological ones. In terms of the former, it became necessary fairly early on to delimit the number of texts I would address in the dissertation: even with a narrowed geographic and historical focus on the post-World War II United States there were still novels that I was unable to incorporate (for an extensive list of U.S. post-apocalyptic novels see the bibliography). As for the latter, the United States, it seems to me and to some others, has been going through a major historical transition in to the 21st century. Namely, the United States has been moving from a phase of historical dominance as an economic and political superpower to a phase of uncertainty in those arenas. Three particular moments or phases of this decline interest me most: first, the moment of U.S. dominance just after the War at the zenith of what has been generally called the American Century; second, the tightening grip of neoliberal dominance in the mid-1980s; and, finally, the moment of free fall between the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003 and the on-going global financial crisis of 2007-2008. The coincidence of U.S. decline and a veritable rash of post-apocalyptic novels strikes me as the ripest relationship to consider in the following pages. Behind the U.S. post-apocalyptic novel as a going concern lies an emergent thread in my work: petroculture. I am inspired lately by the work of Timothy Mitchell, especially in Carbon Democracy (2011), which seeks to retell the story of the development of modern government along the axis of energy, an element strangely missing from the pages of political philosophy. Thus, the 3 Kermode, The Sense of an Ending 7. vi historical frame of my dissertation, the American Century, can be seen to roughly correspond to the rise of the automobile and petroleum use and the decline of coal use. If we imagine the height of the American Century in those heady days after World War II, then we can begin to see that it starts its decline during the OPEC crisis of the 1970s, which was followed by the 1980s oil glut. The tension generated in an increasingly oil dependant state, which was simultaneously outsourcing manufacturing, created a turbulent political climate at home, which in turn reached outward through the tendrils of multinational corporations, war, and debt. The point to make here, in the Preface to my dissertation, is that correspondence of U.S. global dominance and the post-apocalyptic novel, shadowed by petroculture, tell a fascinating story. Indeed, it is my suspicion that on its own the post- apocalyptic begins as a containment strategy for the anxieties of the success of modernity, and then as internal and external crises mount, it becomes a tool for the familiarization of the radical changes to come during the hegemon’s slow death. Retrospectively, we might say that the symptoms of decline were already there all along, but it is only now amidst the global uncertainty generated by a superpower in decline that these relationships appear clearly before our eyes. As much as the historical backdrop includes a compelling set of crises for post-apocalyptic novels to work through and symptomatize, my hope is that they also offer a glimpse of what might lie beyond their restoration-fixated outlook. Placing the corpus of texts I am calling post-apocalyptic fiction as a sub- genre of science fiction is both a practical and strategic step. Despite the post-apocalyptic novel’s reactionary politics and in the face of its attempts to turn residual social ontology back into dominant social ontology, is there a chance that at times it offers a way out of its own impasse? Dedication For Alex and for those who survive… vii Acknowledgements First, thank you to anyone I neglect to mention here. Above all, thanks go to Imre Szeman who continues to impress me with his commitment to my work and support of my development. He is endlessly generous to his colleagues and friends, and has not ceased to provide me with avenues for thought, research, presentation, and publication. It has been a joy to work with him, and I suspect that he has taught me things that I will not fully realize I have learned until much later in my career. My sincere thanks go to my official readers: Mark Simpson whose tantalizing, careful considerations set my mind buzzing with thought and Michael O’Driscoll who has an incredible talent for saying what I try to say in a much clearer punchier prose. Thank you to Natalie Loveless, my internal- external examiner as the institutional jargon has it, for pressing me on my commitments. Thank you to Priscilla Wald, my external examiner, for introducing a new set of ideas that have already got me thinking about the next step. Thank you to the chair of my defence, Janice Williamson. A special thank you to those who came to the defence, your interest and support is both humbling and encouraging. I presented an early version of Chapter II at the Marxist Literary Group’s Institute on Culture and Society at Ohio State in 2013, an early version of Chapter III at a joint session of ACCUTE and CAAS at Waterloo in 2011, and gave various other presentations at ACLA, CAAS, CACS, and MLG-ICS, all of which informed the development of the project. For me as for many before me, the MLG-ICS became a kind of alternate graduate school: Each year I would leave the institute energized by the conversations, each year I would return ready for the previous year’s debate and find a new vital conversation underway, and each year I learned the challenges and rewards of trying to think those conversations together. Thank you to everyone who has participated over the years and to those who continue to make it engaging and instructive. viii ix I wish to thank the reference librarians at the Merrill Collection of Science Fiction and Fantasy in Toronto, Ontario for guiding me through their wonderful archive. I was lucky to have received travel grants from the Graduate Students Association, a Marie Louise Imrie award from the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research, and two Sarah Nettie Christie awards for travel from English and Films Studies. The Department of English and Film Studies also supported me by awarding me several Queen Elizabeth II awards and the Kule Institute for Advanced Study awarded me a Dissertation Completion Award. Thank you to Sarah Blacker, Gerry Canavan, Adam Carlson, Alexandra Carruthers, Marija Cetinic, Maria Elisa Cevasco, Amy De’Ath Jeff Diamanti, Michael Epp, Andrea Hasenbank, Daniel Harvey, Lisa Haynes, David Houseman, David Janzen, Kate Lawless, Katie Lewandowski, Matt MacLellan Norman Mack, Danijela Majstorovic, Derritt Mason, Sean O’Brien, Shama Rangwala, Joseph Ren, Valérie Savard, Katelynn Schoop, Conrad Scott, Anthony Squires, Camille van der Marel, Sylvie Vigneux, Zoran Vuckovac, and Liam Young. I have to thank and highly recommend my editor, Justin Sully. His thorough and indispensable comments stimulated my thinking and got me excited about my project again. Thank you to Jaimie Baron, Elena Del Rio, Cecily Devereux, Corrinne Harol, Nat Hurley, Eddy Kent, Sourayan Mookerjea, Terri Tomsky, Teresa Zackodnik, and others in the department of English and Film Studies who have supported me and believed in my work. Thank you to Kim Brown, Mary Marshall Durrell, and the rest of the EFS staff. Thank you to the Edmonton Free School, the Marxist Feminist reading group, the hardworking feminists at GUTS, and my cohort. Thank you to my mother, who taught me the incredible wonder of writing about culture, to my father, who modeled integrity, focus, and humour, my step mother, who showed me how my understanding of the world was deeply shaped by my own experience of it, and to Leigh Ann, Josten, William, Rebecca my sisters and brothers who I love deeply. Finally, my loving partner has been with me through the entire process, and in many ways this dissertation is hers too. Thank you, Alex. Table of Contents ABSTRACT II PREFACE IV DEDICATION VII ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS VIII TABLE OF CONTENTS X LIST OF FIGURES XI PROLOGUE 1 CHAPTER I: A PRE-HISTORY OF THE U.S. POST-APOCALYPTIC NOVEL 30 CHAPTER II: THE POST-APOCALYPTIC NOVEL AND SCIENCE FICTION 59 CHAPTER III: OLD AND NEW AMERICAS 86 CHAPTER IV: THE POLITICS OF SURVIVAL 130 EPILOGUE 160 BIBLIOGRAPHY 175 x