Encyclopedia of Language and Education Series Editor: Stephen May Kendall A. King · Yi-Ju Lai Stephen May Editors Research Methods in Language and Education Third Edition Encyclopedia of Language and Education Series Editor Stephen May Faculty of Education and Social Work The University of Auckland Auckland, New Zealand In this third, fully revised edition, the 10 volume Encyclopedia of Language and Education offers the newest developments, including an entirely new volume of research and scholarly content, essential to the field of language teaching and learning in the age of globalization. In the selection of topics and contributors, the Encyclopedia reflects the depth of disciplinary knowledge, breadth of interdisciplin- ary perspective, and diversity of sociogeographic experience in the language and education field. Throughout, there is an inclusion of contributions from non-English speaking and non-Western parts of the world, providing truly global coverage. Furthermore, the authors have sought to integrate these voices fully into the whole, rather than as special cases or international perspectives in separate sections. The Encyclopedia is a necessary reference set for every university and college library in the world that serves a faculty or school of education, as well as being highly relevant to the fields of applied and socio-linguistics. The publication of this work charts the further deepening and broadening of the field of language and education since the publication of the first edition of the Encyclopedia in 1997 and the second edition in 2008. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15111 Kendall A. King • Yi-Ju Lai • Stephen May Editors Research Methods in Language and Education Third Edition With 10 Figures and 1 Table Editors Kendall A. King Yi-Ju Lai University of Minnesota University of Minnesota Minneapolis, MN, USA Minneapolis, MN, USA Stephen May Faculty of Education and Social Work The University of Auckland Auckland, New Zealand ISBN 978-3-319-02248-2 ISBN 978-3-319-02249-9 (eBook) ISBN 978-3-319-02250-5 (print and electronic bundle) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-02249-9 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017936663 #1st edition: # Kluwer Academic Publishers 1997 #2nd edition: # Springer Science+Business Media LLC 2008 #Springer International Publishing AG 2017 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. 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Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Editor in Chief’s Introduction to the “Encyclopedia of Language and Education” This is one of ten volumes of the Encyclopedia of Language and Education published by Springer. The Encyclopedia – now in this, its third edition – is undoubtedly the benchmark reference text in its field. It was first published in 1997 under the general editorship of the late David Corson and comprised eight volumes, each focused on a single, substantive topic in language and education. These included: language policy and political issues in education; literacy; oral discourse and education; second language education; bilingual education; knowl- edge about language; language testing and assessment; and research methods in language and education. In his introductory remarks, David made the case for the timeliness of an overarching, state-of-the-art review of the language and education field. He argued that the publication of the Encyclopedia reflected both the internationalism and interdisciplinarity of those engaged in the academic analysis of language and education, confirmed the maturity and cohesion of the field, and highlighted the significance of the questions addressed within its remit. Contributors across the first edition’s eight volumes came from every continent and from over 40 countries. This perhaps explains the subsequent impact and reach of that first edition – although no one (except, perhaps, the publisher!) quite predicted its extent. The Encyclopedia was awarded a Choice Outstanding Academic Title Award by the American Library Association and was read widely by scholars and students alike around the globe. In 2008, the second edition of the Encyclopedia was published under the general editorship of Nancy Hornberger. It grew to ten volumes as Nancy continued to build upon the reach and influence of the Encyclopedia. A particular priority in the second edition was the continued expansion of contributing scholars from contexts outside of English-speaking and/or developed contexts, as well as the more effective the- matic integration of their regional concerns across the Encyclopedia as a whole. The second edition also foregrounded key developments in the language and education field over the previous decade, introducing two new volumes on language sociali- zation and language ecology. This third edition continues both the legacy and significance of the previous editions of the Encyclopedia. A further decade on, it consolidates, reflects, and expands (upon) the key issues in the field of language education. As with its predecessors, it overviews in substantive contributions of approximately 5000 v vi Editor in Chief’s Introduction to the “Encyclopedia of Language and Education” words each, the historical development, current developments and challenges, and future directions, of a wide range of topics in language and education. The geo- graphical focus and location of its authors, all chosen as experts in their respective topic areas, also continues to expand, as the Encyclopedia aims to provide the most representative international overview of the field to date. To this end, some additional changes have been made. The emergence over the last decade of “superdiversity” as a topic of major concern in sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, and language education is now a major thread across all volumes – exploring the implications for language and education of rapidly chang- ing processes of migration and transmigration in this late capitalist, globalized world. This interest in superdiversity foregrounds the burgeoning and rapidly complexifying uses of language(s), along with their concomitant deconstruction and (re)modification, across the globe, particularly (but not exclusively) in large urban environments. The allied emergence of multilingualism as an essential area of study – challenging the long-held normative ascendancy of monolingualism in relation to language acquisition, use, teaching, and learning – is similarly highlighted throughout all ten volumes, as are their pedagogical consequences (most notably, perhaps, in relation to translanguaging). This “multilingual turn” is reflected, in particular, in changes in title to two existing volumes: Bilingual and Multilingual Education and Language Awareness, Bilingualism and Multilingual- ism (previously, Bilingual Education and Language Awareness, respectively). As for the composition of the volumes, while ten volumes remain overall, the Language Ecology volume in the second edition was not included in the current edition, although many of its chapter contributions have been reincorporated and/or reworked across other volumes, particularly in light of the more recent developments in superdiversity and multilingualism, as just outlined. (And, of course, the impor- tant contribution of the Language Ecology volume, with Angela Creese and the late Peter Martin as principal editors, remains available as part of the second edition.) Instead, this current edition has included a new volume on Language, Education and Technology, with Steven Thorne as principal editor. While widely discussed across the various volumes in the second edition, the prominence and rapidity of develop- ments over the last decade in academic discussions that address technology, new media, virtual environments, and multimodality, along with their wider social and educational implications, simply demanded a dedicated volume. And speaking of multimodality, a new, essential feature of the current edition of the Encyclopedia is its multiplatform format. You can access individual chapters from any volume electronically, you can read individual volumes electronically and/or in print, and, of course, for libraries, the ten volumes of the Encyclopedia still constitute an indispensible overarching electronic and/or print resource. As you might expect, bringing together ten volumes and over 325 individual chapter contributions has been a monumental task, which began for me at least in 2013 when, at Nancy Hornberger’s invitation, Springer first approached me about the Editor-in-Chief role. All that has been accomplished since would simply not have occurred, however, without support from a range of key sources. First, to Nancy Hornberger, who, having somehow convinced me to take on the role, graciously Editor in Chief’s Introduction to the “Encyclopedia of Language and Education” vii agreed to be Consulting Editor for the third edition of the Encyclopedia, providing advice, guidance, and review support throughout. The international and interdisciplinary strengths of the Encyclopedia continue to be foregrounded in the wider topic and review expertise of its editorial advisory board, with several members having had direct associations with previous editions of the Encyclopedia in various capacities. My thanks to Suresh Canagarajah, William Cope, Viv Edwards, Rainer Enrique Hamel, Eli Hinkel, Francis Hult, Nkonko Kamwangamalu, Gregory Kamwendo, Claire Kramsch, Constant Leung, Li Wei, Luis Enrique Lopez, Marilyn Martin-Jones, Bonny Norton, Tope Omoniyi, Alastair Pennycook, Bernard Spolsky, Lionel Wee, and Jane Zuengler for their academic and collegial support here. The role of volume editor is, of course, a central one in shaping, updating, revising, and, in some cases, resituating specific topic areas. The third edition of the Encyclopedia is a mix of existing volume editors from the previous edition (Cenoz, Duff, King, Shohamy, Street, Van Deusen-Scholl), new principal volume editors (García, Kim, Lin, McCarty, Thorne, Wortham), and new coeditors (Lai, Or). As principal editor of Language Policy and Political Issues in Education, Teresa McCarty brings to the volume her long-standing interests in language policy, language education, and linguistic anthropology, arising from her work in Native American language education and Indigenous education internationally. For Liter- acies and Language Education, Brian Street brings a background in social and cultural anthropology, and critical literacy, drawing on his work in Britain, Iran, and around the globe. As principal editors of Discourse and Education, Stanton Wortham has research expertise in discourse analysis, linguistic anthropology, identity and learning, narrative self-construction, and the new Latino diaspora, while Deoksoon Kim’s research has focused on language learning and literacy education, and instructional technology in second language learning and teacher education. For Second and Foreign Language Education, Nelleke Van Deusen- Scholl has academic interests in linguistics and sociolinguistics and has worked primarily in the Netherlands and the United States. As principal editors of Bilingual and Multilingual Education, Ofelia García and Angel Lin bring to the volume their internationally recognized expertise in bilingual and multilingual education, includ- ing their pioneering contributions to translanguaging, along with their own work in North America and Southeast Asia. Jasone Cenoz and Durk Gorter, principal editors of Language Awareness, Bilingualism and Multilingualism, bring to their volume their international expertise in language awareness, bilingual and multilingual edu- cation, linguistic landscape, and translanguaging, along with their work in the Basque Country and the Netherlands. Principal editor of Language Testing and Assessment, Elana Shohamy, is an applied linguist with interests in critical language policy, language testing and measurement, and linguistic landscape research, with her own work focused primarily on Israel and the United States. For Language Socialization, Patricia Duff has interests in applied linguistics and sociolinguistics and has worked primarily in North America, East Asia, and Central Europe. For Language, Education and Technology, Steven Thorne’s research interests include second language acquisition, new media and online gaming environments, and viii Editor in Chief’s Introduction to the “Encyclopedia of Language and Education” theoretical and empirical investigations of language, interactivity, and development, with his work focused primarily in the United States and Europe. And for Research Methods in Language and Education, principal editor, Kendall King, has research interests in sociolinguistics and educational linguistics, particularly with respect to Indigenous language education, with work in Ecuador, Sweden, and the United States. Finally, as Editor-in-Chief, I bring my interdisciplinary background in the sociology of language, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, and educational linguis- tics, with particular interests in language policy, Indigenous language education, and bilingual education, along with my own work in New Zealand, North America, and the UK/Europe. In addition to the above, my thanks go to Yi-Ju Lai, coeditor with Kendall King, and Iair Or, coeditor with Elana Shohamy. Also to Lincoln Dam, who as Editorial Assistant was an essential support to me as Editor-in-Chief and who worked closely with volume editors and Springer staff throughout the process to ensure both its timeliness and its smooth functioning (at least, to the degree possible, given the complexities involved in this multiyear project). And, of course, my thanks too to the approximately 400 chapter contributors, who have provided the substantive content across the ten volumes of the Encyclopedia and who hail from every continent in the world and from over 50 countries. What this all indicates is that the Encyclopedia is, without doubt, not only a major academic endeavor, dependent on the academic expertise and goodwill of all its contributors, but also still demonstrably at the cutting edge of developments in the field of language and education. It is an essential reference for every university and college library around the world that serves a faculty or school of education and is an important allied reference for those working in applied linguistics and sociolinguis- tics. The Encyclopedia also continues to aim to speak to a prospective readership that is avowedly multinational and to do so as unambiguously as possible. Its ten volumes highlight its comprehensiveness, while the individual volumes provide the discrete, in-depth analysis necessary for exploring specific topic areas. These state-of-the-art volumes also thus offer highly authoritative course textbooks in the areas suggested by their titles. This third edition of the Encyclopedia of Language and Education continues to showcase the central role of language as both vehicle and mediator of educational processes, along with the pedagogical implications therein. This is all the more important, given the rapid demographic and technological changes we face in this increasingly globalized world and, inevitably, by extension, in education. But the cutting-edge contributions within this Encyclopedia also, crucially, always situate these developments within their historical context, providing a necessary diachronic analytical framework with which to examine critically the language and education field. Maintaining this sense of historicity and critical reflexivity, while embracing the latest developments in our field, is indeed precisely what sets this Encyclopedia apart. The University of Auckland Stephen May Auckland, New Zealand Volume Editors’ Introduction to “Research Methods in Language and Education” Introduction Research methods in language education have blossomed, diversified, and matured in the decades between the first edition of the Encyclopedia of Language and Education, published in 1997, and this third edition. This maturation is evident in the development of increasingly sophisticated theoretical approaches as well as the adoption and refinement of specialized data collection and analysis techniques, both of which are described in this volume in great detail in its 39 timely chapters, organized into four sections. Evident in this volume, but also apparent more broadly throughout the Encyclo- pedia as well as across the field, are the ways the study of language and education has benefited from sustained and serious discussions of research methodology (e.g., Blom and Unsworth 2010; Gass 2015; Mackey and Gass 2012; Polio 2014). A dominant, although not always productive strand in many discussions of methodol- ogy has been the debate about quantitative vs. qualitative methods, sometimes characterized as a division between more cognitive and more social approaches to studying language and education in general and second language (L2) learning in particular (King and Mackey 2016). Indeed, a great deal of ink has been spent on the relative merits and limitations of supposedly dichotomous paradigms and their respective approaches and methods, a tension which characterized many social science fields and applied linguistics throughout the 1990s (e.g., Beretta et al. 1994; Firth and Wagner 1997; van Lier 1994) as well as more recently (e.g., Gregg 2006; Watson-Gegeo 2004). As the field increasingly grapples with methodologically sophisticated ways in an attempt to address a growing number of urgent, real-world problems in language education, we are pleased to note that contemporary conversations now take a more open, productive, and conciliatory tenor on both sides (see King and Mackey 2016, for extended discussion). Researchers of all stripes have come to (near) agreement that there is “no single, monolithic social-cognitive gap in L2 learning and teaching research” (Hulstijn et al. 2014, p. 414). As DeKeyser (2014) argued in Studies in Second Language Acquisition, “the quantitative-qualitative distinction does not belong here at all. Counter-examples abound of the cognitive equals quantitative ix