Topics in Australasian Library and Information Studies Series editors: ProfessorRoss Harvey and DrStuartFerguson This series provides detailed, formallyrefereed worksonawiderange oftopics and issues relevant to professionals and para-professionals in the library and information industry and to students of library and information studies. All titles are written from an Australasian perspective, drawing on professional experience and research in Australia, NewZealand andthe widerPacific region. Proposals forpublicationsshould be addressed totheseries editors ([email protected]; [email protected]). Number 19 Collection management: Aconcise introduction JohnKennedy Number 18 Information management: Aconsolidation ofoperations, analysis andstrategy Michael Middleton Number 17 Australianlibrarysupervision and management. Abridged student edition RoyF.Sanders Number 15 Organising knowledge in Australia: Principles and practice in libraries and information centres Ross Harvey Number 14 Theother51weeks: MarketingforAustralian libraries LeeWelch Number 13 Amost delicate monster: Theone-professionalspeciallibrary JeanDartnall Number 12 Disaster recovery for archives, libraries and records management systems in Australia and NewZealand Judith Doig Number 9 Libraries inAustralia Peter Biskup, withDoreen Goodman Research methods for students, academics and professionals Information management and systems Second edition Kirsty Williamson with Amanda Bow Frada Burstein Peta Darke Ross Harvey Graeme Johanson Sue McKemmish Majola Oosthuizen Solveiga Saule Don Schauder Graeme Shanks Kerry Tanner Topics in Australasian Library and Information Studies, Number20 • (ClS) Centre forInformationStudies Charles Sturt University Wagga Wagga New South Wales Copyright© Kirsty Williamson2000, 2002 This book iscopyright. Apart fromany fairdealing forthepurposesofprivatestudy, research, criticismorreview aspermittedunder the CopyrightAct, nopart maybe reproduced,stored inaretrieval system, or transmitted, inanyform orby anymeans, electronic,mechanical, photocopied,recorded orotherwise, without priorpermissionof thecopyrightowner. Enquiriesshould be made tothe Centre for InformationStudies, Charles Sturt University. ISBN I 87693842 0 ISSN: 1030-5009 National LibraryofAustraliacataloguing-in-publication data Williamson,Kirsty. Researchmethods forstudents, academics and professionals: informationmanagement and systems. 2nded. Bibliography. Includes index. ISBN I 87693842 O. 1.Documentation-Research -Australia -Methodology. 2. Library science-Research Australia -Methodology. 3.Informationscience -Research-Australia-Methodology. I. Bow, Amanda. II.Charles Sturt University. Centre for InformationStudies. III. Title. (Series: Topics inAustralasianlibrary and information studies; no. 20). 020.7094 This edition publishedin2002 Copy editors: P.Whitten, R.Salmond Index: R.Salmond Coverdesign: B.Bicket, Reprographics Unit, Charles Sturt University Printedby:Quick Print, Wagga Wagga Centre for InformationStudies Locked Bag 660 Wagga Wagga NSW 2678 Fax: 61 26933 2733 Email:[email protected] List of figures, tables and boxes Figure 1.1 The island ofresearch 8 Box 1.1 Examplesofbasic research 9 Box 1.2 Example ofbasic researchwith 'appliedelements' 9 Figure 2.1 Positivistresearchdesign 29 Figure 2.2 Qualitativeresearchdesign 33 Box 2.1 Example ofone researchgroup'sapproachtoresearch 35 Box 2.2 Exampleofcombinedqualitativeand quantitativeapproaches 36 Box 3.1 Examplesofmajor researchquestions foraquantitative study 51 Box 3.2 Exampleofaresearchproblemforaqualitativestudy 51 Box 3.3 Examplesofspecific researchquestionsforaquantitativestudy 52 Box 3.4 Examplesofspecific questionsforaqualitativestudy 52 Box 3.5 Examplesofdirectional hypotheses: Informationseekingina 55 CAB Box 3.6 Examplesofdirectional hypotheses: OPAC/CD-ROMstudy 56 Box 3.7 Exampleofnull hypotheses: InformationseekinginaCAB 56 Box 3.8 Exampleofan unacceptablehypothesis 57 Box 3.9 Part ofatheoretical framework: How itwasdeveloped 60 Figure 3.1 Everydaylife information: An ecologicalmodel ofuse 61 Box 5.1 Example ofadescriptivesurvey: Surveyofinformation 94-96 technologyoutsourcinginAustralia Figure 5.1 Basic design forstatic group comparisons 98 Figure 5.2 Example ofbasic design forstatic group comparisons 98 Box 6.1 Examplesofcase study research(informationsystems) 120 Box 6.2 Example ofcase studyresearch(informationmanagement) 121 Figure 7.1 Deductivereasoningprocess 127 Figure 7.2 Randornised two-group design 131 Box 7.1 Example ofasimple (randornised two-group) experimental 132 design Figure 7.3 Variationon the basic two-group design 133 Figure 7.4 Basic model forpre-test/post-testcontrol group design 133 Figure 7.5 Basic model for factorial design 135 Box 7.2 Example ofacomplex factorial experimentaldesign 136 Box 7.3 Experimentsonevaluationofinformationretrievalsystems 137 Box 7.4 The TRECexperiments 138 Figure 7.6 Basic model forone shot case study 139 Figure 7.7 Basic model forpre-test/post-testdesign 139 x Researchmethodsforstudents,academicsandprofessionals Figure 7.8 Basic model forpre-test/post-testnonequivalentcontrolgroup 141 design Figure 7.9 Basic model forinterruptedtime series design 142 Figure 7.10 Basic model forregressionand discontinuityexperiments 143 Figure 8.1 Amulti-methodologicalapproachto informationsystems 150 research Figure 8.2 CMI ArizonaResearchModel 151 Figure 8.3 The systems developmentmethod 152 Figure 9.1 The mostbasic action researchcycle 161 Figure 9.2 Atypical action researchcycle 162 Figure 9.3 Componentsoftheaction researchprocess 164 Box 9.1 Exampleofaction research to investigatecognitiveprocesses 165 underlyingstrategydevelopment Box 11.1 Detectinginaction 200 Box 11.2 Example ofthe historianacting assceptic 201 Box 11.3 Purposesofattribution 202 Box 11.4 Who verifies what? 204 Box 11.5 Example ofdisentanglement 205 Figure 12.1 Consumerproducts: Results from first round questionnaire 211 Figure 12.2 Consumerproducts: Results from first round and secondround 212 questionnaires Box 12.1 Examples ofDelphistudies in informationmanagement 215 Table 13.1 Distributionusing proportionatestratifiedrandomsampling 229 Box 13.1 Example ofacomparisonbetweenproportionsofkey groupsin 230 asample andapopulation Figure 14.1 How not toconductinterviews 246 Box 15.1 Examplesoftheuseoffocus groups ininformation 255 managementand systems Figure 16.1 Participantobservationcontinuum 268 Box 16.1 Examples ofdoing ethnography/participantobservation 270-271 Figure 17.1 NUD.ISTtree structure 1 298 Figure 17.2 NUD.ISTtree structure 2 299 Box 18.1 Questions forevaluatingresearchreports 319-320 Acknowledgments The inspirationfor thisbookcame fromProfessorDon Schauder,ofMonashUniversity, who firstsawthepossibilitiesofatext which would relate researchmethodsto professionalpracticein informationmanagementand systems. At this time (1998) wehad recentlybecomepartofanew School ofInformationManagementand Systems(SIMS). I am indebted toDon, not only forthisinitial inspiration,but also forhisunstinting encouragementand supportthroughoutthe writing ofthebook. My thanks go tomycolleagueswhose names are listed onthe titlepage, and who have contributedchapterstothebook. Ihave very much appreciatedtheir specialistknowledge, theirdiverse approaches, and their patiencewith the complexprocessofcreatingabook which aims to meetarange ofresearch-relatedneeds inour field. Mythanks also go tostudents inSIMS (MonashUniversity), RMIT'sSchoolofBusiness InformationTechnology(throughKerry Tanner)andThe UniversityofMelboume's DepartmentofInformationSystems (throughAssociate ProfessorGraeme Shanks). We receivedvery helpful feedback from students whoread andcommentedonthe draft chapters during Semester I of1999. The process offinishing thebook would have been much more difficulthad Professor RossHarveynotarrivedatCharles Sturt Universityatthe time that the writing ofthebook wasreachingitsconclusion. Rossread allthe chapters and providedexcellentfeedback, as wellasgenerous support inother ways. He wasalso able touse hisknowledgeofthebook towrite the introduction. Iacknowledge hiscontributionwith thanks. Stuart Ferguson, oftheCentre forInformationStudies, providedvaluable guidance throughout thewriting andpublishingprocess. The book'seditor, PennyWhitten, mustbe acknowledgedwith great gratitudeforherperceptiveand conscientiouswork inbringing thebook uptoahigh standard. Ibelieve that wecould not have had abettereditor. Finally, Ithank myhusband, Geoff, forhisexcellentproof-readingskills and for themany hours inwhich heappliedthem tothebook. Hehasbeen anoutstandingsupportinmany ways,and isgreatlyappreciated Kirsty Williamson December 1999 Introduction Ross Harvey Whyanotherbookaboutresearchmethods? The answer issimple. Researchissuch an importantsubjectfor informationprofessionals- those whowork inthe fieldofinformation managementand informationsystems - that there willalways be aneed for effectiveguides to it.Researchskills are aprerequisite forthose who wantto worksuccessfullyin informationenvironments, anessentialsetoftools which enable informationworkersto become informationprofessionals. Research methodsforstudents. academicsand professionals: Information managementandsystemsprovidessuch skills and encourages the informationprofessionaltoacquire criticalandevaluativeattitudes. Italso has the merit ofbeing Australian-focused, unique among researchtexts forinformationprofessionals. Also notable is itsmulti-disciplinaryfocus(ofwhich more later). Research and professional practice The work ofinformationprofessionals isbeing transformed. The informationserviceswe offer, theinformationproductswedevelop and sell, the informationsystems wedesign and implement, are undergoingrapid change. So, too, isthesociety inwhich weoperate. We have acontinualneed todetermine what ishappening, how itischanging,how itwill affect our places ofwork, how itwillalter theservicesweoffer. Change and itsramifications is themost importantreason whyresearch isnecessary, and why itishere to stay. Ifyoudon't know somethingabout the tools ofresearch and about how touse these tools, then you cannotbe aneffective informationprofessional. Researchandprofessionalpractice are inextricablylinked. Researchcan and does playa vital role inprofessional practiceinthe fieldsofinformationmanagementand information systems, incorporate, government, educationaland communitysectors. The most obvious usesofresearch inthese informationenvironmentsare forproblemsolving, for development, evaluationand improvementofservicesand systems, and toprovide informationbefore introducingnew systems orservices(perhaps throughtheassessmentof user needs). As Williamsonnotes inChapter I, researchinprofessionalpracticeis undertakenformany reasons: • toassist inunderstandingtheproblemsand issues which arise inthe workplace; • toaddtoknowledge inthefieldand/orprovidesolutionstoproblems; • tomaintaindynamicandappropriate services; xiv Researchmethodsforstudents.academicsandprofessionals • tomeetrequirements ofaccountability; • tomaintainandimproveprofessional status;and • toprovide abodyofresearch fmdingsandtheorytoinformpractitioners. The inescapableconclusionisthatinformationprofessionals needtobe- attheveryleast intelligentandcriticalconsumersofresearch.Aquote inChapter 1emphasises thispoint clearlyandemphatically: Researchenablesprofessionalstoaddvaluetotheirworkandworkpractices... [Its use]distinguishesbetweenprofessionalswhomaintainthestatusquowithoutquestion andthosewhostrivetodeveloptheirworkpracticesthroughcontinualevaluationand investigation(Lowe 1999,p.1). The bottomline isthat all informationprofessionalsmustbe able toread researchreports properly,tounderstandtheir contents, andto ascertainwhetherornot the contentsare appropriatetoapplyto their own work. Many (but perhapsnot all) information professionalswillalso require thecriticalfacility and practicalskills tobe able toconduct their own researchtoaddress workplaceproblemsand issues, toimprovepractice, and/orto offer betterservicesandproducts. Research methodsfor students. academicsandprofessionals: Information management andsystemsfocuses onproducingcriticalconsumersofresearch. Italso goes some way towards producingresearchers inthe fields ofinformationmanagementand systems. A multi-disciplinary approach Who are theinformationprofessionalsatwhom thisbookisdirected?It ismulti disciplinaryinitsapproach, withitsauthors being drawn from informationmanagement (librarianship,archivesand recordkeeping) and informationsystems. Examplesare drawn fromthese multipledisciplines.This reflects thegrowing realisationthat information management(or informationstudies) isredefining itselfasadiscipline. Formerlydiscrete areas (librarianship, archives, records management, informationsystemsasacomputing sub-discipline),they are now coalescing- theimpetus beinginformationand communicationstechnology. The authors come fromSIMS (the SchoolofInformation Managementand Systems) atMonashUniversity;Melbourne.Inthis School,the amalgamationofdifferentdisciplinarygroups, initiallymade forpragmaticreasons,has been theimpetus foridentifyingand developingproductivesynergies- hence this book. Introduction xv Oneoftheoutcomesofthemulti-disciplinaryapproachisthatthisbookprovidesstimulus forthoseofuswhocomefromadiscreteresearchtradition.Herethevarioustraditionsof researchareclearlyexplainedanddevelopedwithinaspectrummodel,withpositivist traditionsatoneend,andinterpretivistattheother.Theinformationmanagementandsystems discipline,thisbookmakesclear,dealswithalloftheminvaryingmixes. Anotheroutcomeisthevarietyofviewsprovidedbythebook'smanycontributorsbasedin differentdisciplinesandresearchtraditions.Althoughthevarietyofcontributorsalso contributestostylisticvariationwithinthebook,thereaderwillfmdthatanyunevennessof styleiswellandtrulyoverriddenbythestrengthsthisvarietycontributes- aheadymixofthe theoreticalandthepractical,andthestimulationprovidedbythemulti-disciplinaryapproach. How to use this book Thestructureofthisbookdiffersfromtheusualresearchmethodstextsininformation studies(BushaandHarter1980;GlazierandPowell1992;GormanandClayton1997; Powell1997;Slater1990).It distinguishesbetweenresearchmethodsandresearch techniques, onthebasisthataresearchtechniquefordatagathering(forexample,focus groups)canbeusedwithanumberofdifferentmethods.Typicallybooksaboutresearch treattechniqueandmethodtogether,therebyimplicitlylimitingtheuseofaparticular techniquetoacertainmethod,forexample,questionnaires withsurveys.Theapproach offeredinthisbookalsohelpsthereaderandbeginningresearchertoavoidthetendencyto concentrateonasinglemethodortechniquetotheexclusionofotherviableapproaches. Theresearchproblem,theresearchquestion,hastobethestartingpointoftheresearch, withthechoiceofmethod(s) andtechnique(s)consequentonthis.Oneofthisbook's strengthsisthatitpresentsthepaletteofmethodsandtechniquesfromwhichtheresearcher canidentifythosewhicharemostappropriatetotheresearchproblem. Williamsonacknowledgesthatitisnotalwayseasytodifferentiateresearchmethodfrom researchtechnique.Hereresearch methoddenotesadesignforundertakingresearch, includingthetheoreticalbackgroundtothisdesign.Researchtechniquesareusedto describethemeansbywhichdataaregatheredandsamplesselected.Chapter1explains thisfurther. Thebookhasfoursections.Thefirst, consistingofChapters Ito4,introducesthesubject, providesaframeworkforthinkingaboutresearch,notesmajorissuesandtypologiesof research,anddescribeswhatisrequiredtogetstartedonaresearchproject.Chapter4,anew chapterinthisedition,addressesethics,accommodatingtherealisationinrecentdecadesthat theethicalimplicationsofourresearchhavetobetakenseriously.Thesecondsection (Chapters5to12)examinesresearchmethods:survey,casestudy,experimentaldesign, systemdevelopmentininformationsystemsresearch,actionresearch,ethnography,historical xvi Researchmethods forstudents, academicsandprofessionals research, andtheDelphi method. The thirdsection(Chapters 13to 16)describestechniques used fordatacollection:questionnairedesign, interviewing, focusgroups,andethnographic techniques, includingobservation.The fmalsection(Chapters 17and 18)deals withdata analysis, andevaluationofpublishedresearch. APostscriptposesquestionswhich will encouragefurther thinking about the roleandconductofresearchininformationmanagement andsystems. What the book does not cover Inevitablyabookofthis nature will have omissions. Not presentare someofthe techniques occasionallyappliedinresearchin informationmanagementand informationsystems.The most obviousofthese are bibliometricsand itsoffspringcitationanalysis,and content analysis. Bibliometricsisatechnique which countsand interpretsdata gatheredfrom and aboutpublications. (Currentlyaclaimisbeingmade to allowwebometricsinto the echelon ofresearchtechniques.) Contentanalysis isused to analyseabodyofliteratureand deduce from this analysissomecharacteristicsofthe literature, such as identificationofthemesand how frequentlythey occur. Warranty statement Finally, aguaranteeofquality.The contentsofthis bookhave beenroad-testedwith studentsand academicsfrom severaldisciplinesatseveraluniversities. Theirinput has been helpful,gratefullyreceived,and incorporated into the text ofthe book. In researchterms, thecontentshave beenrefereedand found tobe authoritative! References for Introduction Busha,CharlesH. and Harter, StephenP.(1980). Research methodsin librarianship: Techniques andinterpretations. Academic Press: Orlando, NY. Glazier, J.D.andPowell, R.R. (1992). Qualitative research ininformation management. LibrariesUnlimited: Englewood,Co. Gorman,G.E. and Clayton,Peter. (1997). Qualitativeresearchforthe information professional:Apracticalhandbook. LibraryAssociationPublishing: London. Lowe, D. (1999). Introductionto research inrelation to professional practice. Unpublishedpaper. SchoolofInformationManagementand Systems, Monash University, ~aulfield, Vic., p. 1.