RESEARCH METHODS FOR SPORTS STUDIES This comprehensive, accessible and practical textbook provides a com- plete grounding in both qualitative and quantitative research methods for the sports studies student. The book offers the reader a step-by-step guide to the research process, from designing a research project, to collecting and analysing data, to reporting the research, and is richly illustrated throughout with sport-related case studies and examples from around the world. Now in a fully revised and updated new edition, the book covers key topics such as: n choosing an appropriate research design n undertaking a literature review n key research techniques, including questionnaires, interviews, content analysis and ethnographic studies n data analysis, including an introduction to SPSS, as well as guides to descriptive and inferential statistics n writing a research report n ethical issues in sports research. Research Methods for Sports Studiesis designed to be a complete and self- contained companion to any research methods course, and contains a wealth of useful features such as highlighted definitions of key terms, revision questions, p ractical research exercises and a companion web site with web links, multiple choice questions, PowerPoint slides and other learning resources. The book is also an invaluable reference for any student undertaking a dissertation or research project as part of their studies. Chris Grattonis Professor of Sports Economics and Director of the Sport Industry Research Centre at Sheffield Hallam University, UK. Ian Jones is Associate Dean for Sport, the Centre for Event and Sport Research, Bournemouth University, UK. RESEARCH METHODS FOR SPORTS STUDIES SECOND EDITION CHRIS GRATTON AND IAN JONES First published 2010 by Routledge 2Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2010. To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk. ©2010 Chris Gratton and Ian Jones All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Acatalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Gratton, Chris, 1948- Research methods for sports studies / Chris Gratton and Ian Jones. – 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Sports–Research–Methodology. 2. Leisure– Research–Methodology. 3. Qualitative research. I. Jones, Ian, 1970– II. Title. GV706.8.G726 2010 796¢.07–dc22 2009023900 ISBN 0-203-87938-4 Master e-book ISBN ISBN10: 0–415–49392–7 (hbk) ISBN10: 0–415–49393–5 (pbk) ISBN10: 0–203–87938–4 (ebk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–49392–5 (hbk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–49393–2 (pbk) ISBN13: 978–0–203–87938–2 (ebk) CONTENTS Preface to the second edition xiii 1 WHAT IS RESEARCH? 1 Introduction 1 What is ‘research’? 4 The characteristics of research 4 Why undertake research? 5 The different types of research 6 Pure and applied research 7 Primary and secondary research 8 Theoretical and empirical research 8 Some misconceptions about research 9 Understanding sports research 9 Summary 13 Activities 13 2 THE RESEARCH PROCESS 15 Introduction 15 The research process 15 Summary 20 Activities 21 v contents 3 RESEARCH TRADITIONS 22 Introduction 22 The nature of knowledge 23 Quantitative and qualitative research 29 The growth of qualitative research in sports studies 31 Choosing quantitative or qualitative approaches 33 Mixing quantitative and qualitative data 34 Deductive and inductive research 36 Two broad research traditions 37 What approaches are suitable for my research? 37 Summary 38 Activities 39 4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 40 Introduction 40 Coming up with a research topic 41 Focusing your research question 44 Writing a research proposal 51 Weaknesses in research proposals 51 Summary 52 Activities 53 5 REVIEWING THE LITERATURE 54 Introduction 54 Purposes of the literature review 55 Sources of literature 56 Finding the literature 58 Relevant databases for sport research 59 Focusing your literature search 61 Assessing the literature 62 Assessing web sites 63 How do I know when I have collected enough literature? 64 How should I write up the literature review? 64 How do I reference other authors? 67 Maintaining your references 70 Structuring your literature review 70 vi contents Relating your literature review to your research question 71 Mistakes often made in the literature review 72 Identifying secondary data 72 How do I know if I have completed my literature review? 74 Summary 74 Activities 75 6 THEORIES, CONCEPTS AND VARIABLES 77 Introduction 77 Theories and theoretical frameworks 78 Considering your approach 79 How do I know which theory to use? 82 Concepts and conceptual frameworks 82 Difficult terms to operationalise 86 Reliability and validity 92 The relationship between reliability and validity 95 Assessing qualitative research 96 Summary 98 Activities 98 7 RESEARCH DESIGNS FOR SPORTS STUDIES 100 Introduction 100 Experimental designs 101 Cross-sectional/survey designs 104 Time series designs 105 Longitudinal designs 106 Case study research 107 Grounded theory designs 109 Ethnographic designs 109 Sampling issues 110 Selecting a sample 110 Mistakes made in selecting a sample 114 Determining the sample size 114 Case study or ethnographic sampling 116 Non-response bias 117 What methods should I use to collect data from my sample? 118 Triangulation of data 119 vii contents Combining quantitative and qualitative approaches 120 Ethical considerations in research design 121 Summary 124 Activities 125 8 COLLECTING DATA I: THE QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY 126 Introduction 126 When is the use of a questionnaire appropriate? 127 Advantages of the questionnaire survey 128 Disadvantages of the questionnaire 129 Using internet based questionnaires 130 Designing your questionnaire 131 What types of question can I ask? 132 Should I use existing questions or scales or develop my own? 137 Ordering the questionnaire 138 Problems in questionnaire design 138 Piloting the questionnaire 140 Increasing your response rate 146 The covering letter 147 Administering the questionnaire 149 Following up non-respondents 151 Summary 152 Activities 152 9 COLLECTING DATA II: RESEARCH INTERVIEWS 154 Introduction 154 When is interviewing appropriate? 155 The different types of interview 155 Advantages of the interview method 156 Disadvantages of the interview method 157 Designing the interview schedule 158 Carrying out the interview 159 Motivating the informant 162 Asking sensitive questions 162 Recording the interview 163 viii contents Maximising the quality of the interview 166 Interviewing children 167 Telephone and online interviews 168 Interviews and sample size 168 The key informant interview 170 Focus groups 171 Summary 173 Activities 173 10 COLLECTING DATA III: UNOBTRUSIVE METHODS – OBSERVATION AND CONTENT ANALYSIS 175 Introduction 175 Advantages of unobtrusive methods 176 Disadvantages of unobtrusive methods 176 Observation and participant observation 177 When is observation appropriate? 177 Advantages of observational methods 180 Disadvantages of observational methods 180 Carrying out an observational study 181 Recording data 182 Mistakes made in observational studies 184 Content analysis 185 Mistakes made in content analysis 190 Summary 190 Activities 191 11 COLLECTING DATA IV: ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH IN SPORT 193 Introduction 193 Characteristics of ethnography 196 Undertaking a sports ethnography 198 Ethnographic methods 203 Methodological and ethical issues in sport ethnography 205 Experiential ethnography 205 Autoethnography 206 ix contents