Shifting the Literary Aesthetic: Representations of time in Alexis Wright’s Carpentaria. Louise Loomes 30243483 Masters of Research 2014 Macquarie University This thesis is presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Research at Macquarie University. I certify that this thesis is entirely my own work and that I have given fully documented reference to the work of others. The thesis has not previously, in part or in whole, been submitted for assessment in any formal course of study. Louise Loomes 1 Abstract Carpentaria was the winner of the 2006 Miles Franklin Award, and won for its author, Alexis Wright, the 2007 Australian Literary Society Gold Medal. Wright is an Australian Indigenous Waanyi woman of Carpentaria and Carpentaria, like her other novels, is concerned with environmental, cultural, and racial politics between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australia. But more importantly, Carpentaria is concerned with demonstrating the endurance, vitality, and autonomy of Australia’s First Nations people by creating aesthetic forms that challenge the limiting discourses that restrict Indigeneity to a landless timelessness. This research investigates aesthetic representations of time in Carpentaria and the ways in which Wright uses time to disrupt dominant discourses about Indigeneity. I take a discourse analysis approach with the work of Edward Said, and his theories of Orientalism, to investigate Wright’s displacement of dominant discourses and her creation of a discourse that privileges Indigenous ontologies. This research examines Wright’s challenge to European temporal ideologies and the reinstatement of Indigenous temporal frames of reference within the novel. In particular, the research considers: Wright’s reinstatement of Indigenous links to the past in history and memory-keeping; her creation of discursive links to the present in both time and space; and her vindication of claims to the future by aesthetically representing a space in which Indigenous culture is valued. This research also demonstrates the ways in which Wright has constructed a literary space whose form serves as a metaphor for the development of a syncretic cultural and physical space in Australia. Louise Loomes 2 Table of Contents 1. Abstract 2 2. Introduction 4 3. Time, history and memory 21 4. Attending to the present 43 5. A discourse for the future 57 6. Concluding remarks and further research 75 7. Bibliography 78 Louise Loomes 3 Introduction …who in charge of changing time then? (Wright, Carpentaria 362) ____________________ Alexis Wright’s 2006 novel, Carpentaria is difficult. It is “difficult” (Syson 86), “strange” (Ravenscroft, “Dreaming” 198), “puzzling” (Devlin-Glass, “Review” 83) and yet “an extraordinary imaginative achievement, full of feeling, humour, knowledge and power” (ASAL). It strikes the reader as being important without understanding how or why (Syson 85). From its sardonic and often tragic irony, its ambiguity and subversion, to its anger, hope, and promise of restoration to a future that was always there, Wright asserts herself as a literary writer of merit. The subversive and difficult form of Carpentaria becomes a metaphor for the resistance to hegemony by the First Australians as well, paradoxically, as the possibility for the syncretic culture that may result from the merging of literatures and cultures (Ashcroft, Griffiths, and Tiffin 15). From the irony of the opening paragraph, “A NATION CHANTS, BUT WE KNOW YOUR STORY ALREADY” (Wright, Carpentaria 1) the reader is put on notice, they are in the presence of a text that creates a new aesthetic approach in Australian literature as it portrays socio-political rage in a blend of traditional Indigenous story-telling and literary fiction. Carpentaria is a novel that delivers a story from the voice of the subaltern (Brewster, “Indigenous Sovereignty” 85), those who are not heard (Sharrad 53). Carpentaria is a political tirade, it is a rage against Australian and Louise Loomes 4 Imperial cultural discourse, and it is in the first paragraph that Wright begins her literary portrait of the rage that turns to war – “ARMAGEDDON BEGINS HERE.” (Wright, Carpentaria 1) Armageddon – the judgment, the end of time. Carpentaria is the judgment of a colonial past and present that has resulted in the “…enormous tragedy of transgenerational poverty, neglect and dispossession” (Wright, “On Writing” 5), and “the indignity and degradation… inflicted on a proud people and a proud culture…” (Rudd). With the invocation of the Armageddon motif, Wright also invokes its dual paradigms of time suggesting that, while Carpentaria is a story about the war at the end of time, it is also a story of the war regarding time. Colonisation is a war fought on fronts not found in many of the official histories of Australia. Carpentaria restores those histories of war to the reader’s consciousness with its portrayal of the modern war; both the physical war between people as well as the war of politics (Moreton-Robinson, “A New Research Agenda” 386). It is a war that celebrates its heroes in a tribute to the heroes of the frontier wars fought by leaders such as Pemulwuy in Eora, Jandamurra of the Bunuba, and Windradyne of the Wiradjuri, and connects to the past with characters such as Uncle Mickey. Mickey keeps a museum of the unofficial history of the region displaying “…all those forty-fours, thirty-threes, three-o- threes, twelve gauges – all kinds of cartridges used in the massacre of the local tribes...his voice lives on in the great archive of cassettes which he left for the war trials he predicted would happen one day” (Wright, Carpentaria 10). Louise Loomes 5 Carpentaria’s heroes, who fight for the land of their people, “fighting, fighting all the time, for a bit of land and a little bit of recognition” (Wright, Carpentaria 11), also fight a cultural war as they attempt to maintain their physical and spiritual ties to the land and its ancestry. The war for cultural sovereignty is fought on many fronts with European ontological notions of literacy, temporality, epistemology, and land use, a means by which to significantly disrupt native cultural practice. Michele Grossman has examined the disruption to native cultural practice in her examination of the colonisation of the First Australians by means of privileging the written word over the oral. She finds that imposition of literacy (1) and the displacement of orality was a means for the introduction of new ways to organise knowledge (6) supplanting traditional modes. Grossman cites Gayatrai Spivak’s term, “‘epistemic violence’ as a way of describing the invasive order of knowledge, classification and value that attempts to transform Aboriginal consciousness…” from a largely oral to a written form (2). Anita Heiss and Peter Minter (2-4), and Grossman (3) examine the emergence of written texts by Australian Indigenous writers and the political counter-effect the Indigenous word has had in reclaiming epistemologies. Their findings demonstrate that increasingly Indigenous literature is abrogating and appropriating, not only the language of the centre, but also its forms, by writing from within the dominant literary framework to resist dominant representations of Indigeneity. Further violence to the epistemologies of Indigenous people was evidenced in the colonisation of time. Giordanno Nanni has made an extensive social historical Louise Loomes 6 examination of the application of European Christian time in Australia. He finds that the introduction of European temporality was at first coercive, then forced upon native people, and used a means for social exclusion as it indicated racial inferiority (20). But Nanni also found that time was, and continues to be, a site of resistance to the imposed hegemony with such resistance indicating the incomplete project of colonisation (19). In short the result of colonisation has been dominance without hegemony. However, the colonial counter-attack has been in the form of the creation of a discourse that reduces resistance to hegemony to pejorative terms such as lazy, backward, primitive, and uncivilized (Moreton- Robinson, “Indigenous Representation” 76). While Nanni’s work has revisited the colonisation of time in Indigenous cultures from an historical viewpoint, there exists no research to date on expressions of, and resistance to, colonised time in Aboriginal literature. My research examines Alexis Wright’s contestation of time and the discourses constructed about Indigeneity with reference to time, and demonstrates Wright’s deconstruction of both the European models of time and those discourses that attempt to lock Indigeneity into a discursive backward or primitive state. Even with the narrowing of focus to representations of time, the potential for points of examination is so broad as to be beyond the scope of this research. As a result, I will further narrow the focus to three key areas: Indigeneity and the past in history, record keeping, and memory; Indigeneity and the present in space; and Indigeneity in the future as recovered by the traditional form of orality. Further, while a great deal of research has been conducted on Indigeneity, it is not the focus of this study Louise Loomes 7 to explain, analyse or understand Indigenous culture, but to examine literary constructions of meaning that work to reappropriate legitimacy to Indigenous cultural beliefs and practices. A great deal of the research on Indigenous representation is located in the disciplines of the social sciences, in particular anthropology, whiteness studies, cultural studies, history, and more recently, critical race studies. Contrastingly, comparatively little research is located in literary studies with a particular focus on the literary constructions of meaning in contemporary Australian Indigenous texts. This research takes, as its point of departure, the findings yielded in interdisciplinary research, particularly expressions of power and resistance, personal and cultural sovereignty, and cultural difference, thus bridging the gap between those findings and their textual expressions by taking a discourse analysis approach. In analysing Alexis Wright’s Carpentaria I employ Said’s theory of Orientalism in my examination of constructions of discourses. I also make a close textual analysis to demonstrate the ways in which Indigenous writers in Australia work within the limitations and expectations of the literary genre, and its audience, to resist constructions of Indigeneity that are deemed to lack authenticity by Indigenous audiences. This research also demonstrates Wright’s ability to work within discursive paradigms to invert discourse as a means to appropriate power from the Imperial centre. Current research into Indigenous literary fiction has been rather limited. The reason for this can be explained by its relatively emergent status combined with the cultural sensitivities regarding whether or not non-Indigenous scholars should Louise Loomes 8 be allowed to critique works by Indigenous writers1. While sensitivities to cultural difference also exist in disciplines beyond literary studies, those disciplines, notably anthropology, sociology, cultural studies and history, produce a greater amount of research. This may be explained by the long association these disciplines have maintained with the study of Indigeneity, but could also be explained by the increased representations of Indigenous scholars in social studies disciplines, as well as the development of Indigenous studies as a discipline in and of itself. What I hope to demonstrate is the gap that exists between the production of Indigenous fictional texts and the scholarly research into those texts (Grossman 5). This research bridges some of that gap by analysing the conversation between Indigenous literary fiction and social science research through Alexis Wright’s novel, Carpentaria. Carpentaria locates much of what it attempts to critique in representations of time. History, the future, beliefs and religion, colonization of land and culture, and construction of identities are common to the imposition of temporal ontologies in Indigenous Australia. Carpentaria re-asserts Indigenous cultural beliefs and practices, continuing the war begun at colonization, fighting European time, with the time of the Indigenous Other; “All times are important to us. No time has ended and all worlds are possible” (Wright, “Politics” 6). But while research has not been conducted on temporality in Wright’s work, or indeed in the work of 1 Heiss argues both for and against the right of non-Indigenous scholars to examine works that are penned by Indigenous authors. Heiss identifies the potential for exploitation of Aboriginals by scholars, “who create successful academic and literary careers for themselves in the area of Aboriginal studies” (10) but she also acknowledges that, “For some white writers, credibility arises from the view that they are providing a voice (however indirectly), to Aboriginal Australia.” (Heiss (a) 10) Louise Loomes 9 other Australian Indigenous authors, many critics of the novel have located much of its strangeness and difficulty in its treatment of time; its shifting temporal reference points; the spiraling plot and changing tenses in particular. Wright’s play with time displaces European hegemony, particularly linearity, from its dominant central position and locates the novel in the indefinite “a time” rather than the definite “the time”. Carpentaria disrupts linearity making a “temporal lingua franca” (Nanni 2) difficult to achieve without the reader accepting the alternate Indigenous frame of reference. The structuring of Carpentaria upon the Indigenous frames of reference critiques representations of Indigeneity and restores the past of ancient Australia as well as forgotten colonial Australia, both of which have been written out of history. It also asserts a connection between the people of Carpentaria and the land in the present, and it creates a future in which representations of Indigeneity resist dominant literary expectations by re-writing discourses. Carpentaria argues for the sovereignty of Australia’s First People by creating a sovereign space in the Indigenous aesthetic form of the novel. It argues for sovereignty by challenging the dominant discourse to privilege Indigenous subjectivity, ontology, and epistemologies. Published in 2006 Carpentaria was influenced by several historical and social contexts; from the fact of more than 200 years of colonization and the resultant loss of Indigenous lands, people, and languages to the more immediate neo- colonial and neo-liberal agendas of the conservative Howard government from Louise Loomes 10