Reorienting the Manchus A Study of Sinicization, 1583-1795 PEI HUANG © East Asia Program Cornell University Ithaca, New York 14853 The Cornell East Asia Series is published by the Cornell University East Asia Program (distinct from Cornell University Press), We publish books on a variety cf scholarly top­ ics relating to East Asia as a service to the academic community and the general public. Standing Orders, which provide for automatic notification and invoicing of each title in the series upon publication are accepted. 夺 Ifafter review by internal and external readers a manuscript is accepted for publication, it is published on the basis of camera-ready copy provided by the author who is responsible for any copyediting and manuscript formatting. Alternative arrangements should be made with approval of the Series. Address submission inquiries to CEAS Editorial Board, East Asia Program, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853-7601. Number 152 in the Cornell East Asia Series Consulting Editor: Doug Merwin Copyright ©2011 by Pei Huang. All rights reserved. ISSN: 1050-2955 ISBN: 978-1-933947-22-8 he ISBN： 978-1-933947-52-5 pb Library of Congress Control Number: 2010931923 Printed in the United States of America 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 171615 1413 1211 987654321 The paper in this book meets the requirements for permanence of ISO 9706:1994. Caution: Except for brief quotations in a review, no part of this book may be repro­ duced or utilized in any form without permission in writing from the author. Please address all inquiries to Pei Huang in care of the East Asia Program, Cornell Univer­ sity 140 Uris Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853-7601. Contents Qing Reign Periods ix List of Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches xi List of Illustrations and Translated Poems xiii List of Maps and Tables xv Explanatory Note xvii Acknowledgments xxi Introduction i 1. Iheme and Approach 2 2. Contents and Sources. 12 Chapter I The Ancestry and Ethnic Composition of the Manchus 31 1. Manchuria: Its Geography and Early Inhabitants 31 2. The Role of the Jurchens 36 3. Components 44 Chapter II Hie Founding of the Qing Dynasty 67 1. The Rise of Nurhaci 67 2. Hong Taiji's Leadership 75 3・ Takeover 80 Chapter III Economic Forces 97 l The Influence of Geography 97 2. The Agricultural Effect 100 3. Frontier Markets 104 4. Tributary Relations 113 v Chapter IV Frontiersmen and Transfrontiersmen 127 1. Frontier Society of Liaodong 127 2. Frontiersmen 36 丄 3. Transfrontiersmen 145 Chapter V The Rise of Administrative and Legal Institutions 173 l Administrative Machinery 挚 174 2. Legal Institutions 186 Chapter VI Transformation of Social Institutions 205 1. Changes in the Family and Customs 205 2. Decline of Manchu Martial Values 213 Chapter VII Manchu Language and Literature 231 1. Language 232 2. Literature 242 Chapter VIII Architecture, Religion, and Confucianism 263 1. Architecture 264 2, Religion 272 3. Confucianism 278 Conclusion 295 Glossary 313 Bibliography 325 Index 363 vi Dedicated to the Memory of Ssu-yu Teng (1905-1988) University Professor Emeritus cf History Indiana University—Bloomington, IN Qing Reign Periods i. The Frontier State, 1616-1626 Nurhachi Tianming, 1616-1626 HongTaiji Tiancong, 1627-1636 Chongde, 1636-1643 2. The Qing Dynasty Shunzhi 1644-1661 Kangxi 1662-1722 Ybngzheng 1723-1735 Qianlong 1736-1795 Jiaqing 1796-1820 Daoguang 1821-1850 Xianfeng 1851-1861 Ibngzhi 1862-1874 Guangxu 1875-1908 Xuangtong 1909-1912 ix List of Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches Chinese and Korean Veritable Records counted days by combining the Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches. Data from these records are cited in the endnotes with such combined elements, known as cyclical characters. L Ten Heavenly Stems Chinese 甲 乙丙 T 戊 己 庚 辛 壬 癸 Romanization jia yi bing ding wu ji geng xin ren gui Korean kap pydng chdng; mu ki ky6ng sin im kye Romainzation 2. Twelve Earthly Branches Chinese 子 丑 寅 卯 辰 巳午 未 申 酉 戌 亥 Romanization. zi chou yin Mao chen si wu wei shen you XU hai Korean cha cKuk in Myo chin sa o mi sin yu sul hae Romanization. xi 3. Selected Cyclical Characters Containing the First Five S*tems Chinese 甲子 乙丑 丙午 丁卯 戊戌 Romanization jiazi yichou bingwu dingmao wuxu Korean kapcha ulchuk Pyongo chongmyo musul Romanization *For a phonetical reason such Korean cyclical characters as 乙亥 and 丙子 should be romanized as urhae and pyongja, instead of ulhae and p^igcha. 4. Selected Cyclical Characters Containing the Last Five Stems 己未 庚寅 辛亥 壬酉 癸巳 Chinese jiwei gengyin xinhai renyou guisi Romanization Korean kimi K/6ngin Sinhae imyu kyesa Romanization xii List of Illustrations and Translated Poems A. Illustrations 1. Manchu Translation of the Mencius 237 2. Ybngzherfs Handwriting 245 3. Shenyang Palace: Phoenix Hall 268 4. Shenyang Palace: Hall of Great Administration 270 Map 1. Physical Characteristics of the Northeast 34 Map 2. The Jurchens before the Rise of Nurhaci 43 Map 3. Major Battle Sites 77 Map 4. Sites of Ming Frontier Markets 105 Map 5. Jurchen-Manchu Capitals 266 B. Translated Poems 1. The Yellow River—by Omutu 247 2. Painting Chrysanthemums—by Yun-duan 249 3. Recording the Words of the Warriors—by Singde 250 4. The Single-tree Temple—by Canghai 251 5. Poem in Retirement—by Sungsan 251 xiii List of Maps and Tables A. Maps l Physical Characteristics of the Northeast 34 2. Jurchens Before the Rise ofNurhad 43 3. Major Battle Sites 77 4. Sites of Ming Frontier Markets 105 5. Jurchen-Manchu Capitals 266 B. Tables 1. Clans with Cross-Border Settlements 46 2. Statistics of Jurchen Traders in the Frontier Markets 107 3. Tributary Missions Led by Nurhaci, 1590-1615 116 4. Select Centers of Jurchen Settlements 135 5. Chinese Enclaves among Jurchen Settlements 147 6. Average Marrying Age of Princesses, 1583-1795 206 7. Average Marriage Age of Princesses of Three Imperial Branches, 1630S-1810S 207 8. Statistics of Hunting Trips by Qing Emperors, 1644-1820 220 9. Nurhacfs Capitals, 1587-1644 265 10. Statistics of Chaste Manchu Widows, 1644-1795 284 11. Statistics of Chaste Manchu Widows, 1627-1795 285 xv