Remote Sensing of Aquatic Coastal Ecosystem Processes Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing VOLUME 9 Series Editor: Freek D. van der Meer, Department of Earth Systems Analysis, International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), Enschede, The Netherlands & Department of Physical Geography, Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, The Netherlands Editorial Advisory Board: Michael Abrams, NASAJet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA, U.S.A. Paul Curran, Department of Geography, University of Southampton, U.K. Arnold Dekker, CSIRO, Land and Water Division, Canberra, Australia Steven M. de Jong, Department of Physical Geography, Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, The Netherlands Michael Schaepman, Centre for Geo-Information, Wageningen UR, The Netherlands The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume REMOTE SENSING OF AQUATIC COASTAL ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES Science and Management Applications edited by LAURIE L. RICHARDSON Florida International University,Miami, U.S.A. and ELLSWORTH F. LeDREW University of Waterloo, ON, Canada Including a CD-ROM with the WASI program by Peter Gege AC.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN-10 1-4020-3967-0 (HB) ISBN-13 978-1-4020-3967-6 (HB) ISBN-10 1-4020-3968-9 (e-book) ISBN-13 978-1-4020-3968-3 (e-book) Published by Springer, P.O. Box 17, 3300 AADordrecht, The Netherlands. www.springer.com Cover Image: 50 km Sea Surface Temperature Anomaly product for 31st July, 2002. NOAA. Also, see chapter 2, figure 2. Included as a color image on CD-ROM. Printed on acid-free paper All Rights Reserved for chapters 5 and 12 © 2006 Springer No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Printed in the Netherlands. Contents LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS x iii PREFACE xvi i Chapter 1 REMOTE SENSING AND THE SCIENCE, MONITORING, AND MANAGEMENT OF AQUATIC COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS LAURIE L. RICHARDSON AND ELLSWORTH F. LEDREW 1. Introduction 1 2. Coastal zones 2 3. Spectral signatures 2 4. Science based connections between ecosystem processes and remote sensing 3 5. Monitoring coastal zones, habitats, and ecosystems 5 6. Management of coastal zones, habitats, and ecosystems 5 7. Integrating remote sensing, science, monitoring, and management 6 8. Summary 6 Section I – Science Applications Chapter 2 EXTREME EVENTS AND PERTURBATIONS OF COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS WILLIAM SKIRVING, ALAN E. STRONG, GAND LIU, FELIPE ARZAYUS, CHUNYING LIU AND JOHN SAPPER 1. Introduction 11 2. Sea Surface Temperature Data 12 3. The Coral Reef Watch SST Anomaly Product 14 4. The Coral Reef Watch Bleaching HotSpot Product 14 5. The Coral Reef Watch DHW Product 14 6. Coral Reef Watch in Action 19 6.1 Case study: Midway Atoll 19 7. Bleaching Warnings for Managers 21 8. The Future of Coral Reef Watch Products 21 9. References 23 10. Appendix 23 Chapter 3 OPTICAL REMOTE SENSING TECHNIQUES TO ESTIMATE PHYTOPLANKTON CHLOROPHYLL a CONCENTRATIONS IN COASTAL WATERS WITH VARYING SUSPENDED MATTER AND CDOM CONCENTRATIONS JOHN F. SCHALLES 1. Introduction 27 vi Table of Contents 2. Chlorophyll as an Integrative Bioindicator 29 3. Inherent Optical Properties and Constituent Absorption and Scattering 34 4. Instrumentation, Calibration, and Biases 36 5. Examples of Water Reflectance Spectra 38 6. Tank Mesocosm Studies 41 6.1 Phytoplankton density and composition and their effects on reflectance 41 6.2 Clay suspensions and their effect on reflectance 47 6.3 Clay interactions with phytoplankton 48 7. CDOM Optics and Interference with Chlorophyll Algorithms 51 8. OACs and Reflectance Spectra Along Longitudinal Transects 57 9. The Reflectance Peak Near 700 nm: A Key Optical Feature in Case 2 Water Chlorophyll Algorithms 59 10. Comparison of Algorithms for Chlorophyll Estimation 62 11. Inverse Models to Relate Inherent Optical Properties and Chlorophyll Using Reflectance Spectra 72 12. Summary and Recommendations 73 13. Acknowledgements 74 14. References 75 Chapter 4 A TOOL FOR INVERSE MODELING OF SPECTRAL MEASUREMENTS IN DEEP AND SHALLOW WATERS PETER GEGE AND ANDREAS ALBERT 1. Introduction 81 2. Models 82 2.1 Absorption 82 2.1.1 Water constituents 82 2.1.2 Natural water 84 2.2 Backscattering 84 2.2.1 Pure water 84 2.2.2 Large particles 85 2.2.3 Small particles 85 2.3 Attenuation 85 2.3.1 Diffuse attenuation for downwelling irradiance 85 2.3.2 Diffuse attenuation for upwelling irradiance 86 2.3.3 Attenuation for upwelling radiance 86 2.4 Specular reflectance 87 2.5 Irradiance reflectance 88 2.5.1 Deep water 88 2.5.2 Shallow water 88 2.6 Remote sensing reflectance 89 2.6.1 Deep water 89 2.6.2 Shallow water 89 2.6.3 Above the surface 89 2.7 Bottom reflectance 90 2.8 Downwelling irradiance 91 2.8.1 Above the water surface 91 Table of Contents vii 2.8.2 Below the water surface 91 2.9 Sky radiance 92 2.10 Upwelling radiance 92 3. Inverse Modeling 92 3.1 Implemented method 93 3.1.1 Curve fitting 93 3.1.2 Search algorithm 93 3.1.3 Modes of operation 94 3.2 Inversion problems 95 3.2.1 Ambiguity 95 3.2.2 Failure to converge 96 3.3 Problem solutions of WASI 96 3.3.1 Use of pre-knowledge 96 3.3.2 Adjust calculation of the residuum 96 3.3.3 Automatic determination of initial values 98 3.3.4 Initialize Simplex 101 3.3.5 Terminate search 102 4. Applications 102 4.1 Data analysis 102 4.2 Error analysis 102 4.2.1 Errors from the sensor 102 4.2.2 Errors from the model 103 4.2.3 Errors from input data 105 4.2.4 Error propagation 106 5. Conclusions 107 6. Acknowledgements 107 7. References 107 Chapter 5 INTEGRATION OF CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEM PROCESS STUDIES AND REMOTE SENSING JOHN BROCK, KIMBERLY YATES AND ROBERT HALLEY 1. Introduction 111 1.1 Objectives 112 2. Rationale 112 3. A Conceptual Model for the Use of Remote Sensing in Reef Metabolic Studies 114 3.1 Remote sensing of reef system structure 115 3.2 Metabolism and coral reef geomorphology 115 3.3 Remote sensing of reef system zones 116 3.4 Mapping intra-zone benthic biotopes 118 3.5 Remote sensing of the reef system environment 119 4. Scaling up coral reef metabolism using remote sensing: a case study 121 4.1 Biotope mapping 122 4.2 Benthic process measurements 123 4.3 Calculation of landscape metabolism 124 5. Discussion 125 6. Conclusions 126 7. Acknowledgements 127 8. References 127 viii Table of Contents Section II – Monitoring Applications Chapter 6 INFRASTRUCTURE AND CAPABILITIES OF A NEAR REAL-TIME METEOROLOGICAL AND OCEANOGRAPHIC IN SITU INSTRUMENTED ARRAY, AND ITS ROLE IN MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL DECISION SUPPORT JAMES C. HENDEE, ERIK STABENAU, LOUIS FLORIT, DEREK MANZELLO, AND CLARKE JEFFRIS 1. Introduction 135 1.1 Overview of monitoring stations 135 2. Challenges in Setting up a Network 136 3. The CREWS Network 137 4. Station Construction and Deployment 138 4.1 Site selection 140 5. Station Maintenance 141 6. Data Validation 142 7. Information Systems 142 7.1 Presentation of real-time raw data 142 7.2 Data quality control 143 7.3 Expert system analysis 145 8. Research Application 145 8.1 Coral bleaching 146 8.1.1 Remote verification of coral bleaching alerts and predictions 147 8.1.2 The underwater light field 148 8.1.3 Fluorescence efficiency 149 9. Acknowledgements 155 10. References 155 Chapter 7 AIRBORNE LASER ALTIMETRY FOR PREDICTIVE MODELING OF COASTAL STORM-SURGE FLOODING TIM L. WEBSTER AND DONALD L. FORBES 1. Introduction 157 1.1 The challenge 157 1.2 Remote sensing technologies for flood risk mapping 158 1.3 Case study: Flood risk mapping in Prince Edward Island, Canada 159 1.3.1 LIDAR mapping 159 2. Validation of LIDAR Elevation Models 162 3. DEM Construction from LIDAR 171 3.1 Interpolation methods and classification of the LIDAR point cloud 171 3.2 Ground surface refinement 172 4. Flood-risk Mapping Using a LIDAR DEM 173 4.1 Water levels for the flood modeling 173 4.2 GIS flood modeling of storm-surge water levels 175 Table of Contents ix 4.3 Flood-depth maps 176 4.4 Flood-risk impact analysis and adaptation 176 5. Conclusions 179 6. Acknowledgements 179 7. References 180 Chapter 8 INTEGRATION OF NEW DATA TYPES WITH HISTORICAL ARCHIVES TO PROVIDE INSIGHT INTO COASTAL ECOSYSTEM CHANGE AND VARIABILITY JENNIFER GEBELEIN 1. Introduction 183 1.1 Ecosystem change 183 2. Historical Satellite Imagery and Related Data Products 184 2.1 Global land cover facility (GLCF) – a case study 184 2.2 Products generated using GLCF data and disseminated on the GLCF Website 186 2.2.1High resolution data products 186 2.2.2 Moderate resolution data products 188 2.2.3 Coarse (global and regional-scale) resolution data products 189 2.2.4 Other available historical image datasets 189 3. Sample Historical GIS Data and Related Data Products 190 3.1 Data and Data Derived Products Disseminated on the WRI Website 190 4. Data Integration Issues 192 5. Conclusions 194 6. Acknowledgements 195 7. References 195 Section III – Management Applications Chapter 9 OBSERVING COASTAL WATERS WITH SPACEBORNE SENSORS BRIAN G. WHITEHOUSE AND DANIEL HUTT 1. Introduction 201 2. Platforms vis-à-vis Sensors 201 3. Elements of Time 202 3.1 Satellite/sensor revisit time 202 3.2 Data reception and processing time 205 3.3 Data ordering time 205 4. Sensors and Their Applications 205 4.1 Multispectral sensors 206 4.2 Thermal IR sensors 209 4.3 Altimeters and synthetic aperture radars 210 4.4 Passive microwave sensors and scatterometers 212 5. Financial Issues 213 6. Summary 213 x Table of Contents 7. Acknowledgements 214 8. References 214 9. Appendix 215 Chapter 10 THE ROLE OF INTEGRATED INFORMATION ACQUISITION AND MANAGEMENT IN THE ANALYSIS OF COASTAL ECOSYSTEM CHANGE STUART PHINN, KAREN JOYCE, PETER SCARTH, AND CHRIS ROELFSEMA 1. Introduction 217 2. Information Requirements for Understanding, Monitoring and Managing Coastal and Coral Reef Environments 217 2.1 Natural resource management in coastal aquatic ecosystems 217 2.2 The three “Ms” for management: Mapping, Monitoring and Modeling 218 2.3 Integrating remote sensing and management 219 3. The Role of Environmental Indicators in Monitoring and Managing Coastal Environments 220 3.1 Environmental indicators 220 3.2 Environmental indicators for coastal aquatic ecosystems 220 3.3 Links between environmental indicators and remote sensing 221 4. Linking remotely sensed data sets to environmental indicators, the community, and policy-makers 221 4.1 A framework for linking environmental indicators to remotely sensed data 221 4.2 Presenting remotely sensed data and derived information for use by policy makers and stakeholders 227 5. Multi-temporal analysis techniques for mapping and monitoring changes in coastal and coral reef environments 233 5.1 Types of environmental change and processes that can be detected from remotely sensed data for coastal ecosystems 233 5.1.1 Coastal landcover 233 5.1.2 Water quality 234 5.1.3 Substrate composition 234 5.2 Image pre-processing requirements for change and trend detection in coastal ecosystems 235 5.3 Change and trend detection techniques 236 5.4 Presentation of change and trend detection results 236 6. Applications of Remote Sensing in Monitoring Programs 237 6.1 Coral Reef Monitoring Programs Using Remotely Sensed Data 237 6.1.1 Potential coral reef monitoring capabilities using remote sensing 237 6.1.2 Existing coral reef monitoring applications with remote sensing 238 6.1.3 Developing remote sensing for increased use in coral reef monitoring 238 6.2 A Combined Field and Remotely Sensed Program for Mapping Harmful Algal Blooms 240 6.2.1 Characteristics of Lyngbya majuscula as a harmful algal bloom 240 6.2.2 Scientific and community monitoring requirements 240 6.2.3 Remote sensing for mapping L. majuscula 242 6.2.4 Inclusion of community information with the field and image based mapping program 242