Revista del CESLA ISSN: 1641-4713 [email protected] Uniwersytet Warszawski Polonia DA SILVA ADAMI, Vítor Hugo; SILVA DA SILVEIRA, Marcos HARE KRISHNA MOVEMENT IN THE BRAZILIAN WAY Revista del CESLA, núm. 18, enero-diciembre, 2015, pp. 239-251 Uniwersytet Warszawski Varsovia, Polonia Available in: http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=243342822010 How to cite Complete issue Scientific Information System More information about this article Network of Scientific Journals from Latin America, the Caribbean, Spain and Portugal Journal's homepage in redalyc.org Non-profit academic project, developed under the open access initiative HARE KRISHNA MOVEMENT IN THE BRAZILIAN WAY1 La manera de ser del movimiento Hare Krishna en Brasil Vítor Hugo DA SILVA ADAMI* Marcos SILVA DA SILVEIRA** Fecha de recepción: julio del 2014 Fecha de aceptación y versión final: marzo del 2015 ABSTRACT: The purpose of this essay is to present a brief outline of the Hare Krishna movement in Brazil. Initially, it shows the extent to which the Hare Krishna movement was able to fit into the context of Brazilian society, during the nineteen-seventies when its presence was first perceived. This is followed by a de- scription of a case concerning a specific Hare Krishna temple in the south of Brazil, Porto Alegre. Tensions were observed among the followers of the Hare Krishna doctrine in Porto Alegre, especially between a family of devotees who financially supported the Temple – functioning in their vegetarian restaurant – and the IS- KCON’s leadership and its congregation. Finally, a short analysis is made on the idea of considering the Brazilian Hare Krishna movement a typical way of doing a traditional Hare Krishna movement – in Brazilian societal attributes. In other words: Is it possible to consider the Hare Krishna movement originally rooted and traditionally genuine in any country? KEYWORDS: Hare Krishna, identity, community, conflict. RESUMEN: La propuesta para este artículo es enseñar un panorama breve acerca del movimiento Hare Krishna en Brasil. Inicialmente, se mostrará las cir- cunstancias y los hechos en los cuales favorecieron encajar el movimiento Hare Krishna en el contexto social brasileño a lo largo de los años setenta, cuando fue percibida su presencia en el Brasil. A partir de ahí, se va a seguir con la descripción etnográfica, específicamente, del templo Hare Krishna ubicado en el sur de Brasil en la ciudad de Porto Alegre. Conflictos y tensiones fueron constatados en esta co- munidad de devotos, principalmente, entre la familia de devotos que mantenían el 1 This paper was presented at the 2013 Conference of ISSR/SISR. This international confe- rence was held in Turku, Finland (27-30 June 2013). * Vítor Hugo da SILVA ADAMI – Doctor in Social Anthropology and postdoctoral researcher in the department of Anthropology at Rovira i Virgili University, Tarragona, Spain. E-mail: [email protected]. ** Marcos SILVA DA SILVEIRA – Doctor in Social Anthropology and Professor at Federal Uni- versity of the Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil. E-mail: [email protected]. Revista del CESLA, No. 18, 2015, pp. 239-251 240 Vítor Hugo DA SILVA ADAMI, Marcos SILVA DA SILVEIRA templo financieramente y los líderes representantes de la tradición del movimiento Hare Krishna (ISKCON). En conclusión, se hará una reflexión teórica en el intento de cuadrar el movimiento Hare Krishna dentro de una manera de ser brasileña y, por esa razón, buscar contestar la siguiente pregunta: ¿Se puede considerar que el mo- vimiento Hare Krishna es originalmente ubicado y tradicionalmente genuino desde algún país?. PALABRAS CLAVE: Hare Krishna, identidad, comunidad, conflicto. A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE BRAZILIAN HARE KRISHNA MOVEMENT Brazil is well known for its religious diversity. Officially, it is the biggest Catholic country of the world. As a matter of fact, Catholicism has been practiced in a variety of ways, influenced by the Indigenous, the Afri- cans and the Iberians. Starting in the nineteenth century, when the Brazilian harbours were opened to international trade, a series of religious denomina- tions emerged, installing new Christian versions such as the Pentecostals and also the Spiritist doctrine of Alan Kardec. Brazil has since become the most Kardecist country in the world. The Vedic meaning of Karma and reincarnation has been used in different ways in such religions. For example, in the Umbanda, a spiritual incorporation of Indigenous and African ancestors is practiced by Mediums who, through these incorporations, could practice rites of healing. Also, in the Umbanda, Africans “Orixás” which can be compared to the Hindu De- vas, are worshipped. There is a specific range of Spiritism called “Spirits from India”, the “Indian Flow of Space” and some famous Spiritists, as “Zartur, the Indian”. During the twentieth century, the Brazilian religious field was influ- enced by gurus from India, especially, Swami Vivekananda, Aurobindo, Ramakrisna, Ramana Maharishi, Maharishi Yogi, Swami Tilak, Osho, Sai Baba and Prabhupada Bhaktivedanta Swami. Most people who got interested in such “new spiritual practices” were highly educated and could be found on the Eastern, Southern, and Central parts of Brazil. These were considered the most urbanised places in that country. Moreover, more people started to  CESLA Universidad de Varsovia Hare Krishna Movement in the Brazilian Way 241 be interested in non-traditional practices, doctrines and philosophies such as: Rosicrucian, Budhism, Teosophy, Hatha Yoga, Martial Arts, Macrobiotics, and Vegetarianism. Those people called themselves “Spiritualists” in order to make a distinction from those who practice “Spiritism”. From 1964 to 1978, Brazil was taken over by a military dictatorship. The economic and political aspects of life were closed to many social chan- ges, however the Brazilian religious side of life kept its pace. It was in this social scenery that the Hare Krishna movement came to emerge in Brazil – during the second half of the nineteen-seventies. The Hare Krishna move- ment was started in Brazilian society by young adults who, during the nine- teen-sixties had travelled to the United States and/or England and had come to know the movement in those countries – some of them even met Prab- hupada, the founder of ISKCON (International Society of Krishna Con- sciousness) in 1965 in the United States. Those enthusiastic devotees started to translate Prabhupada’s books into Portuguese. They also took classes in areas which were considered “Spiritualist” and “counter-cultural” in some parts of Brazil. The counter-culture movement in Brazil was defined by an eclectic intense intercultural dialogue. Some of the few possible “alternative experiences” in the Brazilian society during the military dictatorship were: Rock ‘n’ Roll, Flower Power, Hippie communities, Vegetarian restaurants, Yoga practice, esoteric venues, etc. All of these were considered spaces for Prabhupada’s disciples to preach and also to take classes on the Bhagavad Gita as it is2. In 1978, an American Sanyasin, Hridayananda Goswami, became a guru and there were many people, especially young people, initiated by him. During this period they founded a rural community called “New Goku- la” which is situated in a religiously important and historic place in Brazil. The City of Aparecida do Norte, located in the countryside, between São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, is one of the most important Catholic centres in Brazil. The Hare Krishna community was situated in a small farm close to the nearby farm town of Pindamonhangaba. It is a beautiful place surround- ed by mountains and forests just like the Nilgiri Hills, in Southern India. 2 Sw. B. Prabhupada, Bhagavad Gita as it is, Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, Los Angeles 1972. Revista del CESLA, No. 18, 2015, pp. 239-251 242 Vítor Hugo DA SILVA ADAMI, Marcos SILVA DA SILVEIRA This community would become one of the most important Hare Krishna cen- tres in South America. The beginning, as mentioned by some pioneer devo- tees, was a hard time. The Radha Gokulananda deities altar was installed in an old room, in the farm house. It was a small house with only two bedrooms – one for men and the other for women – and a kitchen. They used to bathe in a rivulet, called Yamuna River by the community, and eat white flour chapatis with taros. People living in the surrounding areas considered them very unusual people. The devotees used book distribution, incense and took Hari Nama Sankirtana, in order to collect money to build their community. During the eighties there were again many changes in the Brazilian social lifestyle. It was a period of re-democratization. Starting in 1979, a cul- tural effervescence surged in many different ways, including artistic mani- festations. The alternative movements from the previous decade became fashionable. There was a body worship movement, the use of health foods, martial arts, etc. All of those “alternatives lifestyles” became relevant in the context of the Brazilian society. The Hare Krishna movement was spread by opening many temples in different cities in Brazil. Chaitanya Mahaprabu’s3 five hundredth birthday was celebrated in 1986. It was considered a historical reference to the Hare Krishna movement in this period of time. In 1985 the rural Hare Krishna community New Gokula was the main location of an important event called “National Meeting of Alternatives Communities” which made the Hare Krishna movement visible in different parts of Brazil. By way of a rural community concerned about environmental recovery, the Hare Krishna movement became well known, not only for its Indigenous spirit lifestyle, but for the devotees’ efforts in the recovery and the preservation of the tropi- cal forest, from what used to be a devastated and abandoned land. Because of this, people interested in such environmental issues started to visit the 3 Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1533) was considered a Bengali saint who revitalized the Hare Krishna movement at the end of the fifteenth century in the West Bengal – India. He was assumed by the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition as Krishna himself who came back to Earth to spread the Maha mantra (name of God) around the world.  CESLA Universidad de Varsovia Hare Krishna Movement in the Brazilian Way 243 Hare Krishna rural community. Nowadays there are five Hare Krishna rural communities and all of them are protected environmental areas4. In 1994, Brazilian government carried out a crucial financial reform, the “Real Plan” which improved the financial situation enough for Brazilians to travel abroad. Brazilian currency became equivalent to the U.S. dollar. That made it possible for many Brazilian devotees to go to India, especially to Vrindavan, to stay in the ISKCON’s guesthouse and share their expe- rience with other devotees from different parts of the world, within “Krish- na’s pastimes in Vrindavan”. An Indian style of clothing, food, spices, mu- sic, and musical instruments were introduced into Brazilian society during this decade, by the devotees’ efforts to reproduce a sacred Indian lifestyle. It was very common to see people in some major cities in Brazil wearing t- shirts displaying images of some Indian deities such as Krishna, Shiva, Lak- smi, Ganesha, and Saraswati. These sorts of t-shirts were introduced in Bra- zil, by the Hare Krishna movement followers. The Prabhupada’s centennial was celebrated during 1996 and 1997, considered as the peak of the Hare Krishna movement in Brazil. New Hare Krishna cultural centres were inaugurated in various Brazilian cities during this time. A memorial to Prabhupada was inaugurated in New Gokula rural community, where two thousand people gathered for the events. In one of these celebrations, Malati Dasi, a female devotee and Prabhupada’s disciple was formally presented. She is the spiritual leader of the female community of devotees in the United States. Some followers in that event were surprised to see her wearing a saffron sari, when she introduced herself as a feminist Sannyasini – an inconceivable attitude for the subservient Latin-American female devotees. It was possible to hear commentaries by some male devo- tees, in a jocose way saying that “everything in women is maya”. At the end of the nineties, the Hare Krishna movement started to de- cline. Conflicts concerning Temple administrations, scandals involving IS- KCON’s leadership5 in some ISKCON’s temples around the world, seriously 4 See: Fazenda Nova Gula, www.novagokula.com.br; and Sociedade Internacional para a Consciência de Krsna (ISKCON), www.iskcon.com.br. 5 See: E. Burke Jr. Rochford, Hare Krishna in America, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NY 1985; S. Guerriero, The Hare Krishna Movement in Brazil: the Religious Revista del CESLA, No. 18, 2015, pp. 239-251 244 Vítor Hugo DA SILVA ADAMI, Marcos SILVA DA SILVEIRA compromising its reputation, caused ISKCON to be examined, especially in India. During this time, a Srila Prabhupada’s spiritual brotherhood, Nara- yana Maharaja, started to visit different ISKCON’s temples around the world and heavily criticised the way ISKCON’s leadership was dealing with the Prabhupada’s legacy. Conflicts among the devotees of Vaishnava and Vais- nav – outside India – became an issue to be re-thought. Some spiritual lead- ers at ISKCON were favourable of Narayana Maharaja’s criticisms and ac- cepted his way of preaching. One example was Isvara Swami, one of the most well-known and important spiritual leaders at ISKCON in Brazil, who decided to join the Naraya Maharaja’s movement. Isvara Swami used to have many devotees as his disciples, when he made a decision to renounce his position as a Sanyasin. Hridayananda Goswami’s authority in Brazil started to be questioned. His followers, who helped him to set the Hare Krishna movement in Brazil, isolated themselves from the Brazilian devotee community as whole6. A brief overview of the last ten years of the Hare Krishna movement in Brazil can show us some contrasts of peaks and declines in its importance in Brazilian society. Nowadays, the rural community of New Gokula has lost its diversity of public devotees and “alternative people”. It is sometimes pos- sible to find many people together in the rural community, when there are famous Vaishnava’s parties, such as Jammasthami and Radhastami. In fact, “New Gokula” is still an important Hare Krishna centre in Brazil but the same intense social community life that used to gather around some three hundred devotees, does not exist anymore. Community of Nova Gokula, Master Dissertation, PUC, São Paulo 1989; M. Silveira, Hari Nama Sankirtana: An Ethnographic Study of a Ritual Process. Doctoral Thesis, UNB, DF. Brasília 1999; V.H. Adami, Transgressions and Concessions of a Westbound Hinduism: An Ethnographic Study About the Hare Krishna Movement, Master Dissertation PUC-RS, Porto Alegre 2005; and others. 6 See the follow sites about Narayana Maharaja: http://radhesyama.multiply.com/ http://gve- brasil.blogspot.com, http://sripadvanamaharaja.blogspot.com, http://www.purebhakti.co.uk http://brasilsanga.ning.com.  CESLA Universidad de Varsovia Hare Krishna Movement in the Brazilian Way 245 It is important to emphasize that none of the devotees broadly accept the idea of a schism. Such an idea is rejected by almost all of them. For the most part, they agree that the Hare Krishna movement has experienced some serious conflicts within the organization. However, from the perspective of the devotional approach, the Vaishnava’s practices, all devotees are still joined together in their beliefs. So, what has changed? CONFLICT CASE AT ISKCON TEMPLE IN PORTO ALEGRE, BRAZIL At the beginning of this text, a brief overview concerning the man- ners in which the Hare Krishna movement was introduced and established in Brazil was discussed. In the present section, the main purpose is to describe a specific case of conflict that took place in a Hare Krishna temple in Porto Alegre, a large capital in Southern Brazil7. The conflict was defined by po- wer struggles between the confessed and the non-confessed Hare Krishna members and the ISKCON leadership, in an attempt to locally recognize a “legitimate Hare Krishna movement”, in accordance with their conven- ience and interests. The ISKCON Temple model8 in Porto Alegre is located in a neigh- bourhood, broadly considered as an “alternative” place: the neighbourhood of Bom Fim9. The ISCKON Temple is actually inside a vegetarian restaurant – The Govinda’s – which is a private business owned by a family of devo- tees, who also lead a snack bar and support the Temple financially. In fact, they pay for all basics such as rent, bills, fees, some food for the deities and 7 This analysis was based on an ethnographic study carried out during 2002 and 2004 in Porto Alegre, Brazil. See: V.H. Adami, op. cit. for further information. 8 In V.H. Adami, op. cit., the author has described distinct “models” to be considered by ways of “doing Hare Krishna movement”. ISKCON’s model is one of these. 9 The neighbourhood of Bom Fim (“The Good End”) is broadly considered in Porto Alegre as an “alternative place”. It is also possible to find others Oriental religious communities there such as: a Buddhism Temple, Ananda Marga Association, stores of Indian goods, some of them also sharing space with drug users and male prostitutes at night. Most part of the Hare Krishna Temples in urban cities are located in places where one could easily find drugs and theirs users. Revista del CESLA, No. 18, 2015, pp. 239-251 246 Vítor Hugo DA SILVA ADAMI, Marcos SILVA DA SILVEIRA the maintenance of a Pujari. The family of devotees and the Pujari set out to coordinate a conciliation around some administrative issues between the congregation and the ISKCON leadership, which was composed of a Brazil- ian GBC (Governing Body Commission)10 and his local secretary, a Vaish- nava Swami. The congregation was founded by some pioneer devotees, some newcomer devotees and the so-called “Krishna’s friends” – people who usu- ally go to the Temple to worship the deities, as well as to eat in the restaurant but who do not consider themselves professed devotees. The deities of Jaga- natha, Baladeva and Subhadra were taken by the GBC’s secretary from In- dia to Porto Alegre, during the eighties. They were installed in different hou- ses in Porto Alegre, as an ISKCON Temple, in accordance with the financial possibility of the congregation to support them. In 2001, the deities went to stay in a family restaurant of devotees because it was not possible for the congregation anymore, as a whole, to keep them in their place. As a result, this family of devotees decided to arrange a small place in their restaurant to install the deities. By this time, coincidently, the restaurant became very successful. There were some rumours that their success was due to the fact that “the dei- ties were living in the restaurant”. There was much tension and gossip bet- ween 2001 and 2003, which could be broadly assumed to make up in an attempt to create a sense of meaning within the Hare Krishna movement, which could be properly matched to each of their own interests. A descrip- tion of another observed conflict case in 2002 between the family of devo- tees, the congregation, and the ISKCON leadership can show us how the Hare Krishna movement was able to fit in a local context in accordance with the devotee’s interests. When the deities were “living in the restaurant” there was an “offi- cial Pujari” who got used to doing all the worship practices, pujas, alone throughout the day, as well as tried to follow the specific standards of wor- 10 In Brazil the GBC – Governing Body Commission – is a Brazilian, Paramgati Swami, who is a guru and also the GBC in Portugal, Spain and France. The GBC is responsible for the worship standards of the deities, installed in the ISKCON Temples.  CESLA Universidad de Varsovia Hare Krishna Movement in the Brazilian Way 247 ship established by the GBC11. However, there was one standard that he was unable to follow, which was to be on time for the deities’ services. Punctu- ality is one of the basic principles to keep the standard “to serve Jaganatha, Baladeva and Subhadra”. Therefore, some rumours concerning delays of the Pujaris’ service were spread through the congregation. The GBC’s secretary heard about it and then asked the Temple’s administration – the family of devotees and the “Official Pujari” himself – to find a solution for the delays. During that time a devotee considered Brahmana was visiting Porto Alegre and the deities, so he could also serve the deities in the altar. He offered to stay in the Temple to serve the deities and as a way to help the “Official Pu- jari”. Although it was not proper for the Temple to receive devotees to live there, because it was a private restaurant, the coordinators accepted the “Vis- itor Pujari” to stay there for a while, in order to remediate with the deities the problems with delays in attendance. Apparently, it was a solution for the secretary’s immediate concerns. However, it did not last long because again, some rumours were spread concerning the intimate life of the “Visitor Pu- jari”. It was said that he did not have an official marriage so this Pujari would be infringing the cleaning premise, as a standard to worship the dei- ties. Cleaning is also related to the “purity” of the Pujari situation and there is a regulation that says “do not practice illicit sex” and sexual relations without officially getting married12. So the situation was considered as “illic- it sex”. The GBC secretary sent an e-mail to the coordinators, saying that he would take the deities back and put “them to sleep”, if the coordinators had not isolated the deities from the “Visitor Pujari”, because his conduct did not meet the standards of behaviour required to serve the deities directly. This created a serious disturbance amongst the followers because “the deities rep- resent Krishna and how would we stay without Krishna around us?” Fur- thermore, the restaurant owner also was not married in an “official marriage” 11 In accordance with an informant, the standard of worship Jaganatha, Baladeva and Sub- hadra deities is less strict and more flexible. They say that these deities are more compassion- ate. The Pujari should follow at least these premises: opulence, beauty, punctuality and clea- ning (purity). 12 “Official marriage” means to be married in a civil and Vedic way by a fire ceremony. Revista del CESLA, No. 18, 2015, pp. 239-251