ECOGNIZING REALITY DHARMAKIRTI'S PHILOSOPHY AND ITS TIBETAN INTERPRETATIONS SUNY Series in Buddhist Studies Matthew Kapstein, editor RECOGNIZING REALITY s Dharmaklrti Philosophy and Its Tibetan Interpretations Georges B. J. Dreyfus State University of New York Press Published by State University of New York Press, Albany © 1997 State University of New York All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission. No part of this book may be stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means including electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior permission in writing of the publisher. For information, address State University of New York Press State University Plaza, Albany, NY 12246 Production by Dana Foote Marketing by Dana E. Yanulavich Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Dreyfus, Georges. Recognizing reality : Dharmakirti's philosophy and its Tibetan interpretations I Georges B. J. Dreyfus. p. em. - (SUNY series in Buddhist studies) ISBN 0--7914-3097-9 (he: alk. paper). -ISBN 0-7914-3098-7 (pb: alk. paper) 1. Dharmakirti, 7th cent. 2. Buddhist logic. 3. Buddhism-China Tibet-Doctrines. I. Title. II. Series. B 133.D484D74 1997 I8I'.043-dc20 96-14258 CIP 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I CONTENTS Preface and Acknowledgments XI Technical Notes XV Introduction I. A Few Methodological Considerations Purpose and Content • The Commentarial Style of Indian and Tibetan Philosophical Traditions • Scholarly Context • The Hermeneutical Significance of Comparison • The Structure of the Work Introduction II. Dharmakirti's Tradition in India and Tibet 15 The Epistemological Turn in Indian Philosophy • The Place of Dharmakirti in Indian Buddhism • Dharmakirti's Tradition in Tibet • Foundation of the Sa-gya Scholastic Tradition • A Conflict of Interpretations • Sa-gya Commentators • The Rise of the Ge-luk Tradition • The Origin and Significance of Sectarian Divisions BOOK ONE. ONTOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE PART I. ONTOLOGY CHAPTER 1 Ontology and Categories Indian Philosophy and the Pramti7Ja 47 Method • Epistemology and Ontological Commitments • Indian Schools of Philosophy • Nyaya Realism and the Importance of Categories • The Meanings of Realism • Nyaya Realism and the Status of Wholes • Dharmakirti's Critique of Substance CHAPTER 2 Dharmakirti's Ontology Momentariness and the Structure of 60 Dhannakirti 's System • Dharmakirti on Momentariness • Causal Nature of Reality • Dharmakirti 's Ontology and Its Relation to the Problem of Universals • Uncommoness and Identity Conditions CHAPTER 3 The Ambiguities of the Concept of Existence The Problems of 73 Dharmakirti's Concepts of Existence • Sa-p~'s Controversial Views on Existence • Defenses and Interpretations of Sa-pai,l vi CONTENTS CHAPTER 4 The Purview of the "Real" Atomic Theory • An Alternate 83 Interpretation • No Extended Object Can Be Real • Some Extended Objects Are Real • Extension in Space and Time • All Extended Objects Are Real • Who Is Right? • Yogadira in Dharmaklrti's System • Is Dharmakirti Contradicting Himself? CHAPTER 5 Ge-luk Thinkers on Specific Ontology Commonsense Objects 106 and Universals • Ge-luk Realism and Commonsense Objects • Realism and Momentariness • Philosophy and the Validity of Conventions • Realist Explanations of the Nature of the Specifically Characterized • Nominal Existence and Existence • A Partial Reconciliation • Conclusion PART II. THE PROBLEM OF UNIVERSALS CHAPTER 6 Introducing Universals Three Dimensions in the Problem of 127 Universals • Antirealism and Its Varieties: Conceptualism and Nominalism • Extreme and Moderate Realisms and Their Predicaments • Realism in India • Moderate Realism in Indian Traditions • Why Bother with Universals? CHAPTER 7 Dharmakirti on Universals Logic and Ontology • Dhannakirti's 142 Arguments Against Realism • The Roles of Universals • Universals and Similarities • An Assessment of Resemblance Theory CHAPTER 8 Sa-gya Antirealism and the Problems of Predication Sa-pat).'s 154 Refutation of Realism • Sakya Chok-den on Predication • Predication and the Validity of Thought • Are Distinguishers Parts of Reality? • The Conceptual Nature of Individuations CHAPTER 9 Ge-luk Realism Universals in the Collected Topics • One and 171 Many • Arguments for Moderate Realism· • Subject and Predicate • Philosophy and Linguistic Ambiguities CHAPTER 10 Realism in Buddhist Tradition Two Early Tibetan Realists • 189 Moderate Realism in Tibet and Madhyamaka • Moderate Realism in India • The Role of Universals in Inference • Conclusion PART Ill. PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE CHAPTER 11 Introduction to Apoha The History of Apoha and its Reception • 205 Grammar and Philosophy of Language in India • Dignaga on Apoha • Hindu Reactions: the Mimarnsa View Contents vii CHAPTER 12 Dharmakirti on Concept Formation Thought and Language • 217 Two Definitions of Thought • The Negative Nature of Conceptuality • Formation of Concept • The Mistaken Nature of Concepts • Conclusion: Dharmakirti's Response to the Hindu ~ritique CHAPTER 13 The Concept of Negation and the Evolution of the Apoha Theory 233 Are Negation and Elimination Equivalent? • Objective Elimination • Santarak~ita on Representations • The Evolution of the Apoha Theory • Ge-luk Views of Negations • Sa-gya Views on Negations CHAPTER14 Object Universal and Concept Formation Importance of the 250 Notion of Object • Universal in the Tibetan Tradition • Object Universal in the Ge-luk Tradition • Object Universal in the Sa-gya Tradition • Comparative Conclusion CHAPTER 15 Philosophy of Language The Terminology of the Inquiry • 261 Ineffability • Dhannakirti on Name and Reference • Signifier and Signified: A Sa-gya View • Moderate Realism and Language BOOK TWO. EPISTEMOLOGY PART I. VALID COGNITION CHAPTER 16 Dharmakirti's Epistemology of Valid Cognition Mental 285 Terminology and the Mind-Body Problem • Knowledge and Pramii~a • Defining Prama~a • The Epistemological Role of Language • Epistemological Typology CHAPTER 17 Was Dharmakirti a Pragmatist? Valid Cognition and Its 299 Object • An Intentional Interpretation • The Requirement of Novelty • A Pragmatist Explanation of Nondeceptiveness • A Pragmatic Theory of Truth? • Reductionism and Intentionality CHAPTER 18 Can Inference Be Valid? Dhannakirti on the Validity of 316 Thought • A Major Difficulty in Dhannakrrti's System • A Realist Answer • Conclusion PART II. PERCEPTION CHAPTER 19 Philosophy of Perception Representationalism and Its 331 Problems • Representationalism and Realism in Indian Philosophy • Aspects and Reflexivity • The Foundational Significance of Aspects viii CONTENTS CHAPTER 20 Dharmakirti's Account of Perception The Nyaya Theory of 345 Perception • Dhannakirti's Definition of Perception • Dhannakirti's Arguments CHAPTER 21 A New Epistemology Begins: Dharmottara on Perception 354 Dhannottara as a Commentator and an Innovator • The Validity of Perception • Bridging the Gap Between Perception and Conception • Does Perception Determine Its Object? CHAPTER 22 Tibetan New Epistemology Cha-ba's Epistemology of 365 Perception • Ge-luk Views of Perception • Implicit and Explicit • Epistemological Typologies CHAPTER 23 Cha-ba's Philosophy of Mind Cha-ba's Typology of Objects • 379 Sakya Chok-den's Polemical Use of History • Critical Appraisal CHAPTER 24 Sa-pat:t's Critique of the New Epistemology Sa-paQ.'s Rejection 389 of Cha-ba's Typology • The Case of Inattentive Cognition • Ascertainment Is Conceptual • Explicit and Implicit • Dhannakirti's Problem and Sa-paQ 's Solution CHAPTER 25 Perception and Apperception Dhannakirti on the Self- 400 Presencing of Mental States • Does Self-Cognition Have an Object? • Go-ram-ba's Representationalism • A Ge-luk Understanding of Dharmakirti's Aspects • Representationalism, Realism, and Causal Theories • The Soteriological Implications of Apperception CHAPTER 26 Are External Objects Perceptible? Are Objects Hidden or 416 "Hidden"? • An Unstable Compromise: Go-ram-ba's Representationalism • The Difficulties of Representationalism • Are External Objects Inferred? • How Hidden Can "Hidden" Be? CHAPTER 27 Epistemology, Metaphysics, and Religion Yogacara in 428 Dhannakirti's Thought • True or False Aspect? • Sakya Chok-den on Yogacara • The Importance ofYogacara in Dhannakirti's Thought • Philosophy and Soteriology in Dharrnakirti • Conclusion Contents ix Conclusion: Philosophy as an Education of the Mind Realism 443 and Antirealism as Interpretations • Philosophy as an Education • Epistemology and the Madhyamaka Critique • Prasailgika and Epistemology: Dzong-ka-ba's Realism • Go-ram-ba's Suspicion of Language • Buddhist Epistemology as an Education N~s 4~ Glossary: Tibetan- Sanskrit- English 563 Glossary: Sanskrit- Tibetan- English 575 Bibliography 581 Author Index 603 Subject Index 611