Read-Alouds in the School Setting Michael Burgess Dr. Diane Tracey Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Master of Arts Degree in Reading Specialization Kean University April, 2006 The Definition and Purpose of a Read-Aloud A report by the National Institute of Education, completed in 1985, as reported by Anderson, Hiebert, Scott, & Wilkinson (1985), in an article by Morrow, Rand and Smith (1995), stated that “the single most important activity for building the knowledge required for eventual success in reading is reading aloud to children” (Morrow, Rand, & Smith, p. 23). Reading aloud to children, or read-alouds, can also be referred to as storybook reading, depending on the study. Regardless of the name, studies on reading aloud to children can be found as long ago as the nineteenth century, meaning that “a strong body of research” (Wan, 2000, p. 157) already exists. In professional literature within the field of education, many articles exist that address the issue of read-alouds, allowing educators an opportunity to review information regarding this topic (Meyer, Stahl, Wardrop, & Linn, 1994). Read-alouds are one means of assisting with the emergent literacy of children, which is defined as “the precursory knowledge about reading and writing that children acquire prior to conventional literacy instruction and that they bring to the task of learning to read” (Justice & Pullen, 2003, p. 99). Many studies have shown that the literacy development of children is influenced by verbal interactions between the children and adults while reading stories (Wan, 2000). Wan reported that Trelease (1989) stated that reading aloud to children is a way to instill a desire to read within each child. Simply providing children with access to storybooks can help those children make strides in emergent literacy, including the areas of print concepts and alphabet recognition (Justice & Pullen, 2003). Additionally, as reported by McGill-Franzen, Allington, Yokoi, and Brooks (1999), Dowhower and Beagle (1998) identified providing access to books as a critical dynamic in aiding early literacy development, especially for children at the kindergarten level. Beck and McKeown (2001) conveyed the research of Snow, Tabors, Nicholson and Kurland (1995), which said that “the most valuable aspect of the read-aloud activity is that it gives children experience with decontextualized language, requiring them to make sense of ideas that are about something beyond the here and now” (Beck & McKeown, p. 10). Smolkin and Donovan (2001a) noted that Pearson (1996) stated that children also gain experience with reading strategies as modeled by the teachers during read-alouds, allowing the children to learn within the context of the situation. Teacher Approaches to Read-Alouds While teachers can learn strategies for how to effectively practice reading aloud to students, one would think that they also have to engage in the activity of reading aloud, in order to use those strategies. As conveyed by Blok (1999), Karweit and Wasik (1996) recommended four read-aloud practices to educators: small group reading, rereadings of stories, limiting how many questions the teachers ask during reading, and presenting new vocabulary with a specific approach. Jacobs, Morrison, and Swinyard (2000) conducted a probability study of 1,874 elementary teachers to find out how often they read aloud to their students. The survey used had the teachers report their read-aloud activity over the previous ten days. The findings indicated that the frequency of read-aloud activity decreased as the grade level (first through sixth) increased. In primary grades, picture books were used much more frequently, while intermediate teachers employed the use of chapter books and novels more often than their primary grade peers. The bottom line of the study was that “book reading does occur often in elementary classrooms” (Jacobs, Morrison & Swinyard, p. 190). One factor that may prevent teachers from utilizing read-alouds often and effectively is the dearth of children’s books in some classrooms and the lack of training in the use of read-alouds. Significant differences were found by McGill-Franzen, Allington, Yokoi, and Brooks (1999) between schools with access to books and those without. In their study, they provided about 250 children’s books to several schools in an urban district. Other schools received no books. The schools that did receive books showed a gain in number of books read aloud. Some schools in the study also received teacher training to go along with the books. The teachers in these schools read out loud fifty percent more than teachers in schools where books were received without training. While read-aloud sessions are often a whole class affair, Wood and Salvetti (2001) stated that Morrow and Smith (1990) found that children can be more participatory during read-alouds if they are able to have one-on-one interaction. The findings of Morrow and Smith declared that students in one-on-one readings “asked more questions and made more comments than those in either whole-class or small-group settings” (Wood & Salvetti, 2001, p. 76). Additionally, as conveyed by Wood and Salvetti, Wells (1986) declared that one-on-one read-alouds allow teachers, and other adults, to guide students in the process of creating meaning of the text. Project Story Boost, examined by Wood and Salvetti, is one program that involves outside readers coming into schools in order to do one-on-one readings with students deemed at-risk. The outside readers are trained in effective read-aloud strategies in order to create the best possible situation for the students. Morrow, Rand and Smith (1995) reported that Roser and Martinez (1985) identified three roles that teachers take on during read-alouds, all of which have caused positive literacy development in children. The role of co-respondent involves the teacher in initiating discussion and sharing reactions and personal experiences that connect the text to real life. As informers/monitors, teachers explain and assess students’ understanding. When teachers act as directors, they fulfill a leadership role by announcing story beginnings and endings. In the observations of Beck and McKeown (2001), teachers predominantly used two types of interactions: clarifying content or vocabulary and attempting to involve students by asking them questions about what was just read to them. A study conducted by Morrow, Rand and Smith (1995) found seventeen statistically significant correlations between teacher and student behaviors. The study showed that teacher behaviors can directly influence what students do during storybook reading. Morrow, Rand and Smith stated that Green, Harker and Golden (1986) found that reading style is another important part of ensuring student success during oral story reading. For students engaged in emergent literacy, how teachers model reading behaviors, such as finger-point reading, can prepare students to use the same behaviors (Uhry, 2002). Uhry defined finger-point reading as “the ability to make a voice-print match while repeating memorized text in a familiar picture book” (Uhry, p. 320). In Uhry’s study of kindergarten children, teachers modeled reading for meaning as well as finger-point reading, prior to the children being tested on finger-point reading. The findings indicated that there is a strong association between finger-point reading and phonemic awareness, an emergent literacy skill. Uhry suggested that modeling finger- point reading during read-alouds may encourage children to read on their own and possibly increase their sight vocabulary. Teacher talk during read-alouds can be effective in improving student responses to the read-alouds (Morrow, Rand & Smith, 1995). In their study, Morrow, Rand & Smith found that seventy-five percent of teacher talk during read-alouds was devoted to classroom management, asking questions, and supplying the students with information. Justice and Pullen (2003) recounted an approach described by Whitehurst, Arnold, Epstein, Angell, Smith, and Fiscehl (1994) known as dialogic reading in which teachers use interactive and evocative behaviors with children during storybook reading. Wan (2000) reported a study by Peterman (1988) that found that “children’s story understanding can be enhanced by storyreading procedures which draw on the children’s own experiences and highlight similar experiences among the story characters” (Wan, p. 156). Beck and McKeown (2001) generated the idea of Text Talk, which is based more on open questions than on literal recall questions. The questions used “ask children to consider the ideas in the story and talk about and connect them as the story moves along” (Beck & McKeown, p. 13). Text Talk is a means for teachers to help children toward increasing their comprehension of the story as well as aiding in the development of children’s language. Justice (2002) pointed out the need for research in the area of questioning during read-alouds, to see what effect the types of questions might have on student learning, specifically in the area of vocabulary. Effects of Read-Alouds General Effects While teachers play a major role in read-alouds, the effect of read-alouds on students can be a key in deeming reading aloud a successful practice. Often, both the teacher and the student play roles in read-aloud situations. Blok (1999) said: There are reasons to expect that an interactive reading style has a much stronger effect on language development than does a passive reading style. In fact, these are roughly the same reasons why entering into verbal interaction is much more effective than offering environmental language. Reading to children often takes place in a specific setting in which the actions are performed with a high degree of routine. These routines cause a certain degree of predictability, which enables children to gradually perform an increasingly large number of actions that were formerly performed by the reader – for instance, handling the book, turning the pages, completing the last word or, at a later stage, paraphrasing parts of the story. Despite its routine nature, reading is not a rigid activity. The setting offers ample opportunities for a certain variety in the repetition. (p. 350) In a study by Morrow, Rand & Smith (1995), the researchers found that student involvement in discussion prior to reading and student participation during and after reading were both positively influenced by the teachers’ focus and behavior. Students can make textual connections during read-alouds in a number of ways, although the connections made may rely on the type of text used in the read-aloud (Smolkin & Donovan, 2001a). Intertextual connections are connections made from one text to another text, while intratextual connections are those made within the same text (Pantaleo, 2004). Pantaleo also discussed autobiographical connections, which are those that relate the text to life and life to the text. In her study of first graders, Pantaleo found that, of all of the textual connections made by students during read-aloud sessions, approximately twenty percent were intertextual, thirty percent were intratextual, and fifty percent were autobiographical. In the cognitive flexibility theory of Spiro, Coulson, Feltovich and Anderson (1994), as reported by Sipe (2000), “readers build up knowledge gradually across cases, as they read (or listen to) many stories and exact similarities and commonalities across them” (Sipe, p. 255). Sipe also gave an account of Cochran- Smith’s (1984) study of preschoolers and how storybook reading helped the students to make connections between the text and their own lives. Crawford and Hade (2000) cited the work of Butler (1998), which stated that the more stories that children hear and the more read-alouds to which they are exposed, the greater the infusion of language and the greater the knowledge about the process of reading that the children inherit. One effective measure when teachers incorporate read-alouds with their students is the rereading of storybooks, which can increase a child’s understanding and enjoyment of the text (Dennis & Walter, 1995). As reported by Dennis and Walter, Lewis (1982) suggested that children will request that their teachers read a story again because they already know the outcome, and they can reconstruct the story upon each rereading. The story has no true surprises when it is repeated, but students maintain their willingness to act surprised. Read-alouds may also be an effective means of improving reading for older children. Ivey and Broaddus (2001) found that “the trend toward dissatisfaction with reading as students move through the middle grades and beyond may be linked to classroom instruction” (Ivey & Broaddus, page number not available). Often, the reading curriculum is geared to satisfy only a small range of reading abilities, rather than instruction being tailored to meet individual needs. Ivey and Broaddus conducted a survey of over 1,700 middle school students in order to determine what aspects of reading instruction worked best for the students. One question posed by the researchers was: “Which reading activities do you enjoy most in class?” (Ivey & Broaddus, page number not available). Sixty-two percent of students indicated that the teacher reading out loud was an enjoyable activity. Only free reading time (sixty-three percent) was checked more often. Several students who partook in the survey were interviewed in order to determine the reason why read-alouds were an enjoyable activity. The students mentioned the use of high-interest books, the dramatic performance by the teacher and the inclusion of the teacher’s own responses as important elements in an effective read- aloud. Ivey and Broaddus concluded that teacher read-alouds can be a critical element in keeping students engaged in reading at the middle school level. The above study by Ivey and Broaddus (2001) included students of different socioeconomic backgrounds, but all from typical school settings. In their research, Malmgren and Leone (2000) worked with incarcerated juveniles with an average age of seventeen, in order to improve their overall reading. One of the major components of the program was teacher read-alouds. The researchers found that the students significantly improved their reading skills, as the subjects showed overall gains in the areas tested. Effects on Comprehension Ulanoff and Pucci (1999) recounted Hall’s (1987) report that the frequency of listening to stories in preschool affected students’ knowledge about books, which in turn correlated to the same students’ reading test scores when they reached the age of seven. In a study done by Feitelson, Kita, and Goldstein (1986), as reported by Wan (2000), children in three disadvantaged first grade classrooms, who were read to for twenty minutes a day for six months, outscored the control classes, who did not have the read- aloud intervention, in the areas of decoding, comprehension, and active use of language. Ouellette, Dagostino, and Carifio (1999) reported that Cohen (1988) stated that reading aloud to elementary students benefits the students’ reading comprehension, as well as other reading skills such as word knowledge. In Cohen’s study, second grade teachers in the experimental classes reread stories out loud to their classes for an entire school year, while the control group teachers followed the regular curriculum, which involved the students reading from basal readers without any oral rereading by the teachers. Students in the experimental group had a significant increase in reading comprehension over their pretest scores, more so than their peers in the control group. One study of a classroom of first and second graders sought to see what impact storybook read-alouds had on the students’ literary understanding, defined as “the gradual growth of knowledge about story structure and the way stories work” (Sipe, 2000, p. 260). In this study, Sipe reviewed the verbal responses of students during read-alouds to determine which facets of literary understanding were most prevalent. Sipe found that analytical responses, or text interpretations, accounted for seventy-three percent of all responses. Sipe also suggested that teachers should allow for verbal responses during reading, as well as before and after reading, because “the children’s responses in this study were so often of the moment and in the moment” (Sipe, p. 272) and for the teacher to wait to hear those responses until after the reading might mean the students would lose their response. Fifth graders of low reading ability were a part of an intervention using a