Rational and Irrational Beliefs Rational and Irrational Beliefs Research, Theory, and Clinical Practice Edited by Daniel David, Steven Jay Lynn, and Albert Ellis Preface In the 1950s, influential researchers and theoreticians (e.g., Noam Chomsky, George Miller, Alan Newell, Herbert Simon) departed from the behaviorist tradition and broke the intellectual ground for the nascent field that Ulrich Neisser (1967) termed "cognitive psychology" in his book by the same name. During this fertile period, Albert Ellis parted ways with both psychodynamic and behavioral psychotherapists to delineate a cognitive approach to conceptualizing and treating psychological conditions. As early as 1955, Ellis applied the verb catastrophize (and later awfulize) to the way people think when they are anxious. After the publication of the article "Rational Psychotherapy" (Ellis, 1958) and the seminal book Reason and Emotion in Psychotherapy (Ellis, 1962, 1994), Ellis became a tireless advocate of a cognitive approach to psychotherapy. Although other professionals (e.g., Adler, Horney, Kelly) before him had stressed the importance of cognitions in the clinical field, they did not promote the cognitive paradigm as an entity in and of itself. It is fair to assert that Ellis's rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT), which highlights the integral role of cognition in adaptive and maladaptive functioning, is the oldest form of cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) and represents the prototype of contemporary cognitive-behavior therapies. By identifying the manifold ways in which individuals react to similar situations, and by exploring how their attitudes, beliefs, and expectancies shape their reality and behavior, Ellis played a pivotal role in instigating the "cognitive revolution" in psychotherapy and psychology more broadly. Accordingly, it is not surprising that concepts derived from REBT have penetrated and/or been assimilated by cognitive psychology, psychotherapy, and many domains of mainstream psychology, including the psychology of stress, coping, and resilience. Indeed, contemporary cognitive-behavioral therapies, regardless of their stripe, share the following propositions, derived from or related to Ellis's REBT: (i) cognitions can be identified and measured, (2) cognitions play a central role in human psychological functioning and disturbance, and (3) irrational cognitions can be replaced with rational cognitions and thereby abet functional emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses in keeping with personal goals and values. Ellis's "ABC(DE)" model is the cornerstone of REBT and cognitive- behavioral therapies. In a nutshell, Ellis argued that individuals respond to an undesirable or unpleasant activating (internal or external) event (A) with a gamut of emotional, behavioral, and cognitive consequences (C). The diverse ways in which people respond to the same or similar events is largely the result of differences in their cognitions or belief systems (B). Rational beliefs can be characterized as efficient, flexible, and/or logical. Rational beliefs promote selfacceptance and adaptive coping with stressful events, reduce vulnerability to psychological distress, and play an instrumental role in achieving valued goals. According to REBT, beliefs are infused with emotion. In fact, Ellis has argued that thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are intimately interconnected. Irrational beliefs (IBs) are related to unrealistic demands about the self (e.g., "I must be competent, adequate, and achieving in all respects to be worthwhile."), others ("I must become worried about other people's problems."), and the world or life conditions ("I must be worried about things I cannot control.") and are associated with a variety of dysfunctional feelings and behaviors. According to Ellis, vulnerability to psychological disturbance is a product of the frequency and strength of irrational beliefs, as compared to rational beliefs. Clients who engage in REBT are encouraged to actively dispute/restructure (D) their IBs and to assimilate more efficient (E) and rational beliefs in order to increase adaptive emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses. It is notable that this general framework (at least the A- B-C part of Ellis's scheme) is at the heart of most, if not all, cognitive- behavior therapies. Cognitive-behavioral therapies are the most popular contemporary therapeutic approaches (Garske & Anderson, 2004), and have steadily increased in acceptance and influence. Not surprisingly, thousands of books and scholarly publications have been devoted to cognitive psychology and CBT. Since its introduction to the psychological community, hundreds of papers have been published on the theory and practice of REBT. Some studies (e.g., Dryden, Ferguson, & Clark, 1989; McDermut, Haaga, & Bilek, 1997) have confirmed the main aspects of Ellis's original REBT theory (Ellis, 1962), whereas other studies (e.g., Bond & Dryden, 2000; Solomon, Haaga, Brody, & Friedman, 1998) have made critical contributions to the evolution of REBT theory and practice (for details, see Ellis, 1994; Solomon & Haaga, 1995). Furthermore, meta-analytic studies have supported the contention that REBT is an empirically supported form of CBT (e.g., Engels, Garnefski, & Diekstra, 1993). Despite the centrality of rational and irrational beliefs to CBT and REBT, it is also legitimate to say that no available book, monograph, or resource provides a truly accessible, state of the science summary of research and clinical applications pertinent to rational and irrational beliefs. Our concern about this gap in the extant literature provided the impetus for this volume. This book is designed to provide a forum for leading scholars, researchers, and practitioners to share their perspectives and empirical findings on the nature of irrational and rational beliefs, the role of beliefs as mediators of functional and dysfunctional emotions and behaviors, and clinical approaches to modifying irrational beliefs and enhancing adaptive coping in the face of stressful life events. Many of the chapters in this volume represent international collaborations, and bring together and integrate disparate findings, to offer a comprehensive and cohesive approach to understanding CBT/REBT and its central constructs of rational and irrational beliefs. The authors review a steadily accumulating empirical literature indicating that irrational beliefs are associated with a wide range of problems in living (e.g., drinking behaviors, suicidal contemplation, "life hassles"), and that exposure to rational self-statements can decrease anxiety and physiological arousal over time and can be a major tool in health promotion. The contributors identify areas that have been "underresearched," including the link between irrational beliefs and memory, emotions, behaviors, and psychophysiological responses. The major focus of our book is on rational and irrational beliefs as conceptualized by proponents of REBT. However, the contents encompass other cognitive constructs that play an influential role in cognitive-behavior therapies including schemas, response expectancies, intermediate assumptions, automatic thoughts, and appraisal and coping. While important in their own right, these concepts are discussed in terms of their relation to rational and irrational beliefs and their role in cognitive-behavioral therapies and psychotherapy more generally. In addition to focusing on the ways irrational beliefs hamper adequate functioning, we highlight how rational beliefs contribute to positive coping and engender resilience in the face of stressful life events. It bears emphasizing that our book is not be an "advocacy piece," slanted toward positive findings regarding REBT. In fact, where appropriate, the contributors directly challenge claims made by proponents of REBT and other cognitive therapies. Our intention was to produce a balanced, critical treatise that provides: (a) cogent summaries of what is known and what is not known about irrational beliefs, (b) suggestions for future research to address important unresolved questions and issues, and (c) up-to-date information for practitioners to guide their clincal practice. Our book is organized in six parts. Part i (Foundations) introduces the reader to the fundamentals of understanding rational and irrational beliefs from a conceptual, historical, cultural, and evolutionary perspective. Chapter i (Ellis, David, and Lynn) traces the historical lineage of the concept of rational and irrational beliefs from the vantage point of REBT, but also discusses the role of rational and irrational beliefs in terms of an array of cognitive mechanisms and constructs. Chapter 2 (Still) approaches definitional issues surrounding irrationality from a logical and historical perspective, discussing the implications of different ways of construing irrationality. Chapter 3 (David and DiGiuseppe) and Chapter 4 (Wilson) contain provocative analyses of rational and irrational thinking from a sociocultural and evolutionary perspective, respectively. Part II (Rational and Irrational Beliefs: Human Emotions and Behavioral Consequences) further explores the role of irrational and rational beliefs in human functioning. Chapter 5 (Szentagotai and Jones) examines the influence of these beliefs in human behavior, whereas Chapter 6 (David and Cramer) discusses the role of rational and irrational beliefs in human feelings, encompassing both subjective and psycho-physiological responses. Part III (Clinical Applications) turns to clinical implications of understanding and modifying irrational beliefs and instating more rational ways of viewing the self and the world. The section begins with a foundational chapter (Chapter 7, Macavei and McMahon) on assessing irrational and rational beliefs, which provides many useful suggestions for measuring and evaluating beliefs in research and clinical contexts. The next two chapters (Chapter 8, Browne, Dowd, and Freeman; Chapter 9, Caserta, Dowd, David, and Ellis) review the literature on irrational and rational beliefs in the domains of psychopathology and primary prevention, respectively, whereas Chapter io (David, Freeman, and DiGiuseppe) explores the role of irrational beliefs in stressful and nonstressful situation in health promoting behaviors, cognitive-behavioral therapy, and psychotherapy in general. In Chapter ii, Mellinger examines the ways that mindfulness has been integrated into contemporary therapeutic approaches to the treatment of irrational thinking in emotional disorders and reviews approaches that stand in sharp contrast to REBT. Part IV (Physical Health and Pain) extends consideration of rational and irrational beliefs to the arena of physical health and pain. Schnur, Montgomery, and David (Chapter 12) review the literature on irrational and rational beliefs and physical health, and propose a new model for testing the influence of irrational beliefs on health outcomes. Ehde and Jensen (Chapter 13) summarize what is now a compelling literature linking catastrophizing cognitions to the experience of pain, and provide an overview of theory, research, and practice of cognitive therapy for pain. In the penultimate Part V (Judgment Errors and Popular Myths and Misconceptions), Ruscio (Chapter 4 underscores the ways that judgment