RAISING A PRAGMATIC ARMY OFFICER EDUCATION AT THE U.S. ARMY COMMAND AND GENERAL STAFF COLLEGE, 1946 - 1986 BY C2010 Michael David Stewart Submitted to the graduate degree program in History and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Theodore A. Wilson Chairperson Adrian R. Lewis Jeffrey Moran James H. Willbanks Susan B. Twombly Date Defended 4/22/2010 The Dissertation Committee for Michael David Stewart certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: RAISING A PRAGMATIC ARMY OFFICER EDUCATION AT THE U.S. ARMY COMMAND AND GENERAL STAFF COLLEGE, 1946 - 1986 Committee: Theodore A. Wilson Chairperson Adrian R. Lewis Jeffrey Moran James H. Willbanks Susan B. Twombly Date approved: 4/22/2010 i ABSTRACT RAISING A PRAGMATIC ARMY: Officer Education at the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, 1946 – 1986 By Michael D. Stewart Department of History, University of Kansas Professor Theodore A. Wilson, Advisor This dissertation explains the evolution of the United States Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas from 1946 to 1986. Examination of change at the United States Army’s Command and General Staff College focuses on the curriculum as a system—students, instructors, professional knowledge, and lessons—mixing within a framework to produce an educational outcome of varying quality. Consideration of non- resident courses and allied officer attendance marks two unique aspects of this study. The curriculum of the Command and General Staff College changed drastically over four decades because of the rapid expansion of professional jurisdiction, an inability to define the Army’s unique body of professional knowledge, and shifting social and professional characteristics of the U.S. Army officer corps, reflected in the faculty and students at the College. Combined, these factors diminished the role and significance of the Command and General Staff College. The subjects taught to officers at the resident course shifted perceptibly during this period. The officer corps redefined professional expertise, moving away from ―purely military‖ considerations towards a body of knowledge that was no longer unique. The institution, once the Army’s senior tactical institution, distributed its resources—the most critical being time devoted to learning—across a broad front. Political, technological, and military turbulence of the early Cold War hampered the Army’s efforts to adopt an effective curriculum to address the changed security environment until well past 1960. Constant changes in the Regular Course affected the non-resident studies program, which was never fully resourced. From 1960 to 1973, the curriculum’s form underwent fundamental changes. CGSC’s leaders attempted to balance the competing demands of peacetime and wartime subjects in a ten-month course, finding it difficult to accommodate the demands of both. The College shifted to a model of concentration and distribution, allowing students more choice. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ii Table of Contents iii Introduction 1 Chapter 1 Organizing Officer Education, 1946-1950 12 Chapter 2 A Course Correction, 1950-1955 59 Chapter 3 Forward Progress, Slowly, 1954-1963 101 Chapter 4 Defining Professional Jurisdiction, 1954-1964 160 Chapter 5 Confronting Modern War, 1963-1973 190 Chapter 6 A Great Awakening, 1973-1986 237 Conclusion Teaching a Future Army 304 Appendices 312 Bibliography 326 iii INTRODUCTION Michael Howard once advised scholars and armed forces‟ professionals to study military history in width, depth, and context so that they may fully understand the nature of military operations and “improve the officer‟s competence in his profession.”1 Historian William Skelton has observed, “an intellectual component is central to a professional orientation: a claim to the exclusive control of a body of specialized knowledge essential to the fulfillment of an important social need.”2 At the intersection of Howard‟s admonition and Skelton‟s observation is the military educational institution where officers become students in order to master their profession‟s body of specialized knowledge. Samuel Huntington‟s 1957 classic, The Soldier and the State, may be said to have begun the modern scholarly treatment of Army professionalism and education. Huntington‟s principal concern was describing civil-military relations, the set of obligations that derived from the officer‟s principal responsibility to the nation.3 He outlined the origins of American military professionalism and put forth three characteristics that defined the professional: expertise, responsibility, and corporateness. Of particular interest here is the notion of expertise. Huntington stated that a professional was “an expert with specialized knowledge and skill in a significant field of human endeavor. Expertise was acquired only by prolonged education and experience.” Delving further, he said, “The direction, operation, and control of a human organization whose primary function is the application of violence is the peculiar skill of the officer.”4 His work became the defining view of officer professionalism for the remainder of the twentieth century. Notably, however, Huntington‟s simple theory belies complex relationships between experience, society, and professional knowledge. 1 Michael Howard, “The Use and Abuse of Military History,” Parameters 11 (March 1981): 9-14. 2 William Skelton, An American Profession of Arms: The Army Officer Corps, 1784-1861 (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1992), 88. 3 Samuel P. Huntington, The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations, 14th printing, (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2000), 16. 4 Huntington, 8-11. Harry Thie and others, Future Career Management Systems for U.S. Military Officers (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1994), 220. Adding to the complexity of defining officership as a profession, officers are sometimes seen as having four distinct roles: servants of the society, members of a time-honored profession, leaders of character, and last, but not least, war fighters. 1 One of the first books to attempt to define military education and the relation to military professionalism was published alongside Huntington‟s theoretical study in 1957. John Masland and Laurence Radway of Dartmouth College explored the education of officers and how the military services prepared senior leaders for their emerging role in formulating national policy. Of interest here are the mere seven pages allocated to the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, which was an overview of the current curriculum related to national policy. The authors noted that Leavenworth did not devote much time to policy and strategy, although they found that recent changes initiated by the Commandant might lead the College in this direction. Masland and Radway recognized the changing nature of the military professional‟s duties and the broadened scope of military professionalism. Their work anticipated the changes that would come to the College in later years.5 Unfortunately, the historiography of professional military education in general leaves a faint trail, and few scholarly works trace the College‟s evolution. The touchstone work is Timothy K. Nenninger, The Leavenworth Schools and the Old Army.6 Nenninger investigated CGSC‟s role in professionalizing the officer corps from 1881-1918 and argued effectively for a close correlation between the education of the American officer corps and the rise in professionalism in the United States Army. Nenninger traced the humble beginnings of the course and underscored the role Leavenworth graduates played as staff officers throughout the Allied Expeditionary Force. He established the corporate nature of “Leavenworth men” relative to other officers. Nenninger found that commandants exercised a significant influence on the course content and on the professional views of graduates themselves. In his view, the faculty defined the institution during this period. 5 John W. Masland and Laurence I. Radway, Soldiers and Scholars: Military Education and National Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957), 280-87. Their broad survey covered military education from the undergraduate experience to the senior service colleges. Unfortunately, they propagate the myth of the demands and rigor of the Leavenworth experience, saying “Stories of nervous breakdowns and even suicides among students are legendary.” Masland and Radway, 283. Two collections of essays about officer education from an international perspective are Gregory C. Kennedy and Keith Neilson, eds. Military Education: Past, Present and Future (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002) and Michael D. Stephens, ed. The Educating of Armies (New York: St. Martin‟s Press, 1989). 6 Timothy K. Nenninger, The Leavenworth Schools and the Old Army: Education, Professionalism, and the Officer Corps of the United States Army, 1881-1918 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1978). 2 Years passed before scholars examined other aspects of the Leavenworth experience. If, as Nenninger contended, the early Leavenworth school can be understood by study of the faculty, the focus shifted to the students during the interwar years, according to Peter J. Schifferle, who extended the historical perspective starting with Nenninger‟s conclusion. Schifferle‟s dissertation covered the interwar period and the Leavenworth courses during the Second World War, and he demonstrated the significant influence the interwar Leavenworth schools had on the Army‟s success in World War Two. Graduates of the Leavenworth courses filled key command positions throughout the Army, and their collective view of ground combat made infantry divisions especially capable organizations. However, Schifferle also found that the Leavenworth experience had significant shortcomings. Courses excluded parallel developments in mobilization and airpower; deficiencies that led to mismanagement and inefficient practices sustaining front-line organizations. “Anticipating Armageddon” answered important questions about the effectiveness of the methods, curriculum, and graduates of Leavenworth. 7 A major gap in scholarship begins in 1945.8 A single published book considers the Command and General Staff College after World War Two. The US Army Command and General Staff College: A Centennial History by Boyd L. Dastrup served as a ceremonial artifact, marking the 100th anniversary of the Leavenworth schools.9 A Centennial History covered major developments within the college during the postwar period, including the effect of numerous officer education studies on the college curriculum in the fifties, adjustments made during the Vietnam War, and the effect of 7 Nenninger, 70-1. Peter J. Schifferle, “Anticipating Armageddon: The Leavenworth Schools and Military Effectiveness, 1919 to 1945” (PhD diss., University of Kansas, 2000). Another dissertation covering the interwar period is Philip C. Cockrell, “Brown Shoes and Mortar Boards: U.S. Army Officer Professional Education at the Command and General Staff School Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, 1919-1940 (PhD diss., University of South Carolina, 1991). Similar to Nenninger‟s interpretation, the Naval War College faculty contributed to the professionalization of the U.S. Navy from 1884-1917, according to Ronald Spector, Professors of War: The Naval War College and the Development of the Naval Profession (1995; repr., Honolulu, HI: University Press of the Pacific, 2005). 8 Internal college accounts have more value as sources rather than as objective studies. “A Military History of the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College 1881-1963” and a sequel that covers 1964-1970 give some additional insight into the school, although both approach the history from the perspective of the College‟s senior leadership. CGSC, “A Military History of the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College 1881-1963,” (Ft. Leavenworth, KS, May 1964), and “A Military History of the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College 1964-1970.” (Ft. Leavenworth, KS, n.d.). The College staff produced additional unpublished studies periodically after 1970. 9 Boyd L. Dastrup, The US Army Command and General Staff College: A Centennial History Leavenworth, KS: J.H. Johnston III and Sunflower University Press, 1982 and Command and General Staff College (CGSC), A Military History of the US Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, KS, 1881-1963, (Fort Leavenworth, KS, n.d.). As an independent historical narrative, Dastrup‟s work cannot be considered definitive. The influence of the sponsor is evident in the book‟s content. A smaller volume was prepared for the College‟s 125th anniversary. Ethan Rafuse, “On the Frontier—Preparing Leaders…Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow: CGSC, 1981-2006,” Ft. Leavenworth, KS: CGSC, 2006. 3 AirLand Battle doctrine. On the other hand, Dastrup relied heavily on secondary sources for much of the evidence, and some of his positive conclusions, such as those regarding the College‟s curriculum revision under Major General Lionel C. McGarr, do not hint at the faculty resistance and turbulence underlying reform. A more balanced historical view by Robert Doughty outlined the evolution of the postwar College. He provided a more balanced treatment of the school than did Dastrup. “The Command and General Staff College in Transition, 1946-1976” was Doughty‟s special study project conducted at the behest of the Commandant, Major General John H. (Jack) Cushman. Doughty outlined the evolution of the post-war College and wrote with the backdrop of debate over General William E. DePuy‟s FM 100-5. Its principal strength arises from the unique access the author had to the material. Doughty‟s work established the role of senior leaders in guiding the postwar college through the changes of 1976, and he identified three principal tensions within the College during the period: education versus training, emphasis on training generalists or specialists, and the question of scope.10 Of the histories of the postwar CGSC, Doughty best described institutional change. One must acknowledge, however, that Doughty produced a contemporary history, having written it concurrent with many of the events he described. A slight criticism is that Doughty paid scant attention, as happened in the other works, to the myriad of staff officers, faculty, and perhaps most telling, students. All studies—Doughty, Dastrup, and the official histories—credit the school‟s senior leadership for much of the change that took place within the institution. Further examination of archival sources shows that Commandants played a role, but they were not always the central element in the story. While decision making presumably occurred at the top of the hierarchical organization, lesser known officer-instructors, civilians, and the students themselves contributed to the form, substance, and purpose of the Command and General Staff College. The experience of students, faculty, and 10 Robert A. Doughty, “The Command and General Staff College in Transition, 1946-1976.” Special Study Project, (Ft. Leavenworth, KS: U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, 1976). Cited later as Doughty, History. The evolution of the Armed Forces Staff College, an intermediate military school focused on joint operations, is traced in Alvin D. Whitley, The Armed Forces Staff College: A History of the First 25 Years, 1946-1971 Command History (Norfolk, VA: Armed Forces Staff College, 1974). 4 administrators all contributed to the evolution of the College. During the postwar decades, outside agencies—both military and increasingly civilian institutions—began to shape the College‟s form and the school‟s educational content.11 Accordingly, the research presented here takes an expansive view of the College‟s activities, including the non-resident course and allied officers in addition to the traditional focus on the Regular Course. Consideration of non-resident courses and allied officer attendance marks two unique aspects of this study. It is from this perspective that the history of American higher education, military professionalism, and American society must be integrated as part of CGSC‟s story. This study nests into a larger body of research on military education, military professionalism, and civilian higher education. One under-researched area of military education is the contrast in form and purposes between civilian higher education in America and that of the military‟s system. This research, in part, relates the evolving purpose of the Fort Leavenworth schools to the current historical understanding of American higher education. The insight offered by the College‟s experience with adapting the courses to the rapid change parallels similar challenges of the modern American university. The Leavenworth courses taught during the interwar period have been credited in part for American success in World War Two.12 It is important to understand whether the college continued to provide the intellectual stimulus necessary to develop equally capable military officers. At the heart of this study is the question of military competence and how to create it.13 The study extends the most 11 Dale James Litney, “Challenges and Changes: A Study of Civilian Academic Influences on the United States Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas” (PhD diss., Claremont Graduate School, 1979). 12 Operational success is not the only historiographical explanation for the Allies‟ success. Historians question whether the American Army possessed operational skill, arguing perhaps the Allies won by industrial might. A convincing interpretation of World War Two‟s outcome emphasizes the role logistics and national industrial power played, as opposed to battlefield prowess. One work that highlights the economic capability of the Allies, particularly the American role, is Williamson Murray and Allan R. Millett, A War to be Won (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2000). While not attributing victory solely to logistics, the authors claim “logistical superiority was crucial to the Allies‟ victory, and America‟s role as the „Arsenal of Democracy‟ made a critical difference.” Murray and Millett, ix. Other works stressing the role of logistics in the war are John Ellis, Brute Force: Allied Strategy and Tactics in the Second World War (New York: Viking, 1990); Martin Van Creveld, Fighting Power: German Military Performance, 1914-1945 (Carlisle Barracks, PA: Art of War Colloquium, U.S. Army War College, 1983); John Kennedy Ohl, Supplying the Troops: General Somervell and American Logistics in WWII (Dekalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1994); and Alan S. Milward, War, Economy, and Society, 1939-1945 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1977). 13 Harold R. Winton, “Introduction: On Military Change,” in The Challenge of Change: Military Institutions and New Realities, 1918-1941, ed. Harold R. Winton and David R. Mets (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2000), iii. Don M. Snider, John A. Nagl, and Tony 5 current research on the Fort Leavenworth schools, which ended with an examination of the interwar years and the World War Two experience. The few works that have framed the subsequent period have not explained developments in the context of external events. Continuing forward from recent scholarship, this study narrows the gap in the historical record between 1946 and the present. The post-World War Two period saw a significant expansion of professional responsibilities; understanding how the institution adjusted to these changes is important. The prominent historian of education, Frederick Rudolph, found that something more than a collection of courses formed a curriculum. He said “students, knowledge, teachers, and … courses” comprised curriculum. He also recognized that the curriculum‟s structure and substance—its qualitative aspects—established the basis for judging outcomes.14 All of these elements manifested themselves in the curriculum. External influences forced the school to recognize new challenges, but the school‟s response to an ever-broadening scope of officer responsibilities took decades to form. The development of new ideas competed with entrenched beliefs in the course. Therefore, this study adopts the same broad view of the curriculum as a system—students, instructors, professional knowledge, and lessons—mixing within a framework to produce an educational outcome of varying quality. Since 1881, the Leavenworth schools educated the officer corps in the Army‟s way of war, and the institution acquired a reputation, if not a mystique, for producing capable staff officers who were in high demand across the Army. At the onset of the Second World War, the school had been in existence for over sixty years. Significant breaks occurred during World Wars One and Two. The interwar years saw some of the most productive educational outcomes, leaving a legacy of excellence borne of demonstrated competence in the conduct of war. However, short courses taught during World War Two had neither the rigor nor the breadth of those taught during the interwar period. Pfaff, Army Professionalism, the Military Ethic, and Officership in the 21st Century (Carlisle, PA: US Army War College, Strategic Studies Institute, 1999), iii, 42. http://carlisle-www.army.mil/usassi/ssipubs/pubs99/ethic/ethic.htm (accessed July 7, 2006). 14 Frederick Rudolph, “Frames of Reference,” in Revisioning Curriculum in Higher Education, ed. Clifton F. Conrad, Jennifer H. Grant, and Jennifer G. Haworth (Boston: Pearson Custom Publishing, 1995), 4. “An elementary caution on the way to understanding the curriculum may be to assume, at the beginning anyway, that maybe there is no such thing as the curriculum.” From Frederick Rudolph, Curriculum: A History of the American Undergraduate Course of Study since 1636 (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1977), 2. 6