RAILWAY ENGINEERING SATISH CHANDRA Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee M.M. AGARWAL Retired Chief Engineer, Northern Railways 1 3 YMCA Library Building, Jai Singh Road, New Delhi 110001 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries. Published in India by Oxford University Press © Oxford University Press 2007 The moral rights of the author have been asserted. Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published 2007 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above. You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. ISBN-13: 978-0-19-568779-8 ISBN-10: 0-19-568779-5 Typeset in Times Roman by Le Studio Graphique, Gurgaon 122001 Printed in India by Ram Book Binding House, New Delhi 110020 and published by Oxford University Press YMCA Library Building, Jai Singh Road, New Delhi 110001 RAILWAY ENGINEERING Preface iii Preface There have been major technological developments in railways around the world in the recent past to meet the challenges of heavier traffic and higher speeds. In Indian Railways especially, the track structure has been modernized in a big way in the last three decades. Long welded rails, concrete sleepers, and elastic fastenings have been used on high- speed routes to provide stable and resilient structures. Metro railways are also being introduced in metropolitan cities to ease the problem of congestion on roads. Diesel and electric locomotives, which have superior performance capabilities, have replaced steam locomotives. In addition, modern signalling, automatic warning, and centralized traffic control systems are being adopted to ensure safety and maximum utilization of track capacity. It is very important for engineering students and new entrants into the field of railways to be aware of not only the fundamentals of railway engineering but also latest developments with regard to railway tracks, locomotives and rolling stock, signalling and interlocking, etc. About the Book This book deals with all aspects of railway engineering, from fundamental concepts to modern technological developments, with special focus on Indian Railways. It is an amalgamation of the vast experiences of the authors—of teaching the subject as well as of serving in Indian Railways. The text presents the theories and field practices as well as the modern techniques in detail. Content and Coverage The book treats the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject exhaustively and incorporates the latest provisions adopted by Indian Railways (IR). Chapter 1 presents a historical account of railways around the world with special focus on the important features of IR. Chapter 2 discusses the various gauges adopted by IR and the problems associated with multigauge systems. Chapter 3 explains the factors affecting track alignment. Chapter 4 describes the different types of engineering surveys required to be undertaken before launching a new railway project as well as the construction of new lines including doubling and gauge conversions. Chapter 5 presents the details of track specifications and structures for different gauges on IR. It also discusses the forces acting on a track and the stresses generated in track components. Chapters 6 to 10 describe the various components of a railway track—rails, sleepers, ballast, formation, and fittings and fastenings. It also discusses the recent provisions adopted by IR with respect to these components. Chapter 11 explains the causes and remedial measures for creep in rails. Chapter12 presents the basic aspects of the geometric design of railway tracks. Chapter 13 discusses the detailed design of the horizontal and vertical curves on a railway line. Chapter 14 and 15 elaborate on the various types of track junctions and their designs, layouts of turnouts, and the factors affecting speed on turnouts. Chapter 16 discusses rail joints and the methods used for welding rail joints. Chapter17 describes the developments in welded railway tracks including long welded iv Preface rails (LWRs) and continuous welded rails (CWRs). It also explains the detailed procedure for laying LWRs and the track specifications for long and short welded rails. Chapter 18 describes the calendar system of track maintenance being followed by Indian Railways, which includes the conventional track maintenance operations of through packing, systematic overhauling, and picking up slacks. Chapter 19 details the track drainage system, along with the drainage of station platforms, yards, and subsurface drains. Chapter20 describes the modern methods of track maintenance followed by Indian Railways employing track machines. It presents the details of measured shovel packing (MSP) equipment on IR. The chapter also describes Directed Track Maintenance (DTM)—IR’s annual programme—and its future scope. Chapter 21 elaborates on the methods of track rehabilitation and the renewal of track components. It also discusses some new machines used by IR for track renewal. Chapter 22 discusses accident and disaster management, which assumes significance because of greater emphasis being placed on safety by Indian Railways. Chapter23 describes level crossings and the measures taken to prevent accidents at such crossings. Chapter 24 includes the design and maintenance features of locomotives and other rolling stock. Chapter 25 provides the details of train resistances and their evaluation. It also defines tractive effort and hauling capacity of locomotives. Chapters 26 and 27 include details of station yards and the various equipment used in railway stations, respectively. Chapter 28 discusses the construction of new railway lines, track material required for BG tracks, doubling of railway lines, and gauge conversion. Chapter 29 exclusively discusses suburban railways in metropolitan cities, which is the latest trend in the Indian context, so that this subject is fully appreciated by the readers. Chapter 30 is devoted to the specialized subject of railway tunnelling, describing the various techniques of construction and maintenance of tunnels in different types of soils. Chapter 31 on signalling and interlocking gives the details of various signals, interlocking techniques, and modern developments concerning train control. Chapter32 discusses the various modernization plans of IR, covering tracks, locomotives, and rolling stock for high-speed trains, with the aim of widening the readers’ understanding of the scope of railway engineering. Acknowledgements While writing this book, references have been made to several Indian Railways codes and manuals and other documents published by RDSO (Research Design and Standards Organisation, India). We have liberally used these documents and gratefully acknowledge RDSO. We are grateful to our family members for their moral support and cooperation while the book was being written. Though every care has been taken to produce an error-free text, some errors may have gone unnoticed. We will be grateful to the users of the book for bringing any such errors to our notice, so that these can be rectified in subsequent editions. Constructive suggestions and comments for further improvement of the content are welcome. SATISH CHANDRA M.M. AGARWAL Contents v Contents Preface iii 1. History and General Features of Indian Railways 1 Developments in Indian Railways 1, Different Modes of Transport 6, Organization of Indian Railways 8, Indian Railway Finances and their Control 13, Commission of Railway Safety 13, Long-term Corporate Plan of Indian Railways 14, Classification of Railway Lines in India16, General Features of Indian Railways 18, Important Statistics of Indian Railways 21, Undertakings Under Ministry of Railways 25 2. Railway Track Gauge 31 Gauges on World Railways 31, Different Gauges on Indian Railways32, Choice of Gauge 32, Problems Caused by Change of Gauge 33, Uni-gauge Policy of Indian Railways 35, Loading Gauge36, Construction Gauge 37 3. Alignment of Railway Lines 39 Importance of Good Alignment 39, Basic Requirements of an Ideal Alignment 39, Selection of a Good Alignment 40, Mountain Railways45, Rack Railways 45 4. Engineering Surveys and Construction of New Lines 47 Need for Construction of a New Railway Line 47, Preliminary Investigations for a New Railway Line 48, Types of Surveys 48, Traffic Survey 48, Reconnaissance Survey 49, Preliminary Survey 51, Preliminary Engineering-cum-traffic Survey 53, Final Location Survey53, Modern Surveying Techniques for Difficult Terrain 56, Construction of New Lines 57 5. Track and Track Stresses 63 Requirements of a Good Track 64, Maintenance of Permanent Way68, Track as an Elastic Structure 69, Forces Acting on the Track 70, Coning of Wheels 78, Tilting of Rails 79 6. Rails 81 Function of Rails 81, Types of Rails 81, Requirements for an Ideal Rail Section 82, Rail Manufacture 86, Rail Wear 92, Other Defects in Rails 94, Rail Failure 95, Rail Flaw Detection 97 7. Sleepers 106 Functions and Requirements of Sleepers 106, Sleeper Density and Spacing of Sleepers 107, Types of Sleepers 108, Wooden Sleepers109, Steel Channel Sleepers 115, Steel Trough Sleeper 115, Cast Iron Sleepers 117, Concrete Sleepers 122 vi Contents 8. Ballast 138 Functions of Ballast 138, Types of Ballast 138, Sizes of Ballast 140, Requirements of a Good Ballast 140, Design of Ballast Section 141, Specifications for Track Ballast 143, Collection and Transportation of Ballasts 146, Methods of Measurement 147, Laboratory Tests forPhysical Properties of Ballast 147, Assessment of Ballast Requirements149, Guidelines for Provision of Sub-ballast 149 9. Subgrade and Formation 152 Slopes of Formation 153, Execution of Earthwork in Embankments and Cuttings 154, Blanket and Blanketing Material 156, Failure of Railway Embankment 157, Site Investigations 163 10. Rack Fittings and Fastenings 166 Rail-to-Rail Fastenings 167, Fittings for Wooden Sleepers 170, Fittings of Steel Trough Sleepers 173, Fittings of CI Sleepers 177, Elastic Fastenings 178, Other Fittings and Fastenings 186, Testing of Fastenings 189 11. Creep of Rails 191 Theories for the Development of Creep 191, Causes of Creep 192, Effects of Creep 193, Measurement of Creep 194, Adjustment of Creep194, Creep Adjuster 194, Portions of Track Susceptible to Creep195, Measures to Reduce Creep 195 12. Geometric Design of Track 197 Necessity for Geometric Design 197, Details of Geometric Design of Track 197, Gradients 198, Grade Compensation on Curves 200 13. Curves and Superelevation 201 Circular Curves 201, Superelevation 210, Safe Speed on Curves 217, Transition Curve 226, Compound Curve 232, Reverse Curve 233, Extra Clearance on Curves 234, Widening of Gauge on Curves 237, Vertical Curves 238, Realignment of Curves 242, Cutting Rails on Curves 249, Check Rails on Curves 250 14. Points and Crossings 254 Important Terms 254, Switches 256, Design of Tongue Rails 258, Crossing 259, Number and Angle of Crossing 263, Reconditioning of Worn Out Crossings 265, Turnouts 266, Turnout with Curved Switches273, Layout of Turnout 273, Trends in Turnout Design on Indian Railways 274, Inspection and Maintenance of Points and Crossings 275 15. Track Junctions and Simple Track Layouts 279 Turnout of Similar Flexure 279, Turnout of Contrary Flexure 280, Symmetrical Split 280, Three-throw Switch 281, Double Turnout 282, Crossover Between Two Parallel Tracks with an Intermediate Straight Length 283, Diamond Crossing 285, Scissors Crossover 287, Contents vii Gauntletted Track 288, Gathering Line 289, Triangle 290, Double Junctions 291 16. Rail Joints and Welding of Rails 294 Ill Effects of a Rail Joint 294, Requirements of an Ideal Rail Joint295, Types of Rail Joints 295, Welding a Rail Joint 298, Gas Pressure Welding 298, Electric or Metal Arc Welding 299, Flash Butt Welding299, Thermit Welding of Rails 304, Recent Developments in Welding Techniques 310 17. Modern Welded Railway Track 313 Development of Welded Rails 314, Theory of Long Welded Rails 315, Prohibited Locations for LWR 316, Track Structure for LWR 317, Rail Temperature and its Measurement 320, Maintenance of Long Welded Rails 321, Switch Expansion Joint 322, Buffer Rails 323, ShortWelded Rails 323, Continuous Welded Rails 324, Buckling of Track325 18. Track Maintenance 329 Necessity and Advantages of Track Maintenance 329, Essentials of Track Maintenance 330, Measuring Equipment and Maintenance Tools for Tracks 335, Maintenance of Rail Surface 336, Deep Screening of Ballast 339, Track Drainage 340, Maintenance of Track in Track- circuited Lengths 340, Organization Structure for Track Maintenance341, Protection of Track for Engineering Work 347, Patrolling of Railway Tracks 350, Track Tolerances 350 19. Track Drainage 353 Need for Proper Track Drainage 353, Sources of Percolated Water in the Track 354, Requirements of a Good Track Drainage System 354, Practical Tips for Good Surface Drainage 355, Track Drainage Systems355, Sub-surface Drainage 358 20. Modern Methods of Track Maintenance 360 Mechanized Methods of Track Maintenance 361, Off-track Tampers362, On-track Tampers 364, Future of Track Machines on Indian Railways 366, Measured Shovel Packing 368, Directed Track Maintenance 380 21. Rehabilitation and Renewal of Track 384 Classification of Track Renewal Works 384, Criteria for Rail Renewals385, Through Sleeper Renewals 388, Execution of Track Renewal or Track Re-laying Work 389, Mechanized Re-laying 391, Track Renewal Trains 393, Requirement of Track Material 395 22. Railway Accidents and Disaster Management 397 Train Accidents 397, Classification of Railways Accidents 398, Derailment and its Causes 401, Restoration of Traffic 403, Flood Causeway 405, Safety Measures on Indian Railways 406, Disaster Management 406 viii Contents 23. Level Crossings 411 Classification of Level Crossings 411, Dimensions of Level Crossings 413, Accidents at Level Crossings and Remedial Measures413, Maintenance of Level Crossings 414, Inspection of Level Crossings by PWI and AEN 415 24. Locomotives and Other Rolling Stock 417 Types of Traction 417, Nomenclature of Steam Locomotives 418, Classification of Locomotives 418, Preventive Maintenance of Locomotives 425, Rolling Stock 427, Brake Systems 428, Maintenance of Coaches and Wagons 430, Design Features of Modern Coaching and Goods Stock 433 25. Train Resistance and Tractive Power 436 Resistance Due to Friction 436, Resistance Due to Wave Action 436, Resistance Due to Wind 437, Resistance Due to Gradient 438, Resistance Due to Curvature 439, Resistance Due to Starting and Accelerating 441, Tractive Effort of a Locomotive 441, Hauling Power of a Locomotive 447 26. Railway Stations and Yards 451 Purpose of a Railway Station 451, Selection of Site for a Railway Station 451, Facilities Required at Railway Stations 452, Requirements of a Passenger Station Yard 452, Classification of Railway Stations453, Station Platforms 463, Main Building Areas for Different Types of Stations 465, Types of Yards 466, Catch Sidings and Ship Sidings 472 27. Equipment at Railway Stations 474 Platforms 474, Foot Over Bridges and Subways 475, Cranes 475, Weigh Bridge 475, Loading Gauge 475, End Loading Ramps 476, Locomotive Sheds 476, Ashpits 479, Water Columns 480, Turntable481, Triangles 482, Traverser 482, Carriage Washing Platforms 483, Buffer Stop 483, Scotch Block, Derailing Switch, and Sand Hump 484, Fouling Mark 485 28. Construction of New Railway Lines and Track Linking 487 Construction of New Lines 487, Requirement of Track Material for BG Track 492, Doubling of Railway Lines 492, Gauge Conversion493 29. Suburban Railways in Metro Cities 498 Urban Transport 499, The Delhi Ring Railways 505, Mass Rapid Transit System in Delhi 506, Kolkata Metro 515, Mumbai Suburban System 517, Chennai Suburban System 518 30. Railway Tunnelling 520 Necessity/Advantages of a Tunnel 520, Tunnel Alignment and Gradient 521, Size and Shape of a Tunnel 521, Methods of Tunnelling522, Ventilation of Tunnels 530, Lighting of Tunnels 532, Contents ix Drainage of Tunnels 532, Shaft of Tunnels 532, Lining of Tunnels533,Maintenance of Railway Tunnels 534, Safety in Tunnel Construction535 31. Signalling and Interlocking 537 Objectives of Signalling 537, Classification of Signals 538, Fixed Signals 540, Stop Signals 549, Signalling Systems 551, Mechanical Signalling System 552, Electrical Signalling System 561, Systems for Controlling Train Movement 563, Interlocking 567, Modern Signalling Installations 574 32. Modernization of Railways and High Speed Trains 579 Modernization of Railways 579, Effect of High-speed Track 580, Vehicle Performance on Track 581, High-speed Ground Transportation System 581, Ballastless Track 582 Index 586 History and General Features of Indian Railways 1 CHAPTER 1 History and General Features of Indian Railways Introduction The history of railways is closely linked with civilization. As the necessity arose, human beings developed various methods of transporting goods from one place to another. In the primitive days goods were carried as head loads or in carts drawn by men or animals. Then efforts were made to replace animal power with mechanical power. In 1769, Nicholes Carnot, a Frenchman, carried out the pioneering work of developing steam energy. This work had very limited success and it was only in the year 1804 that Richard Trevithick designed and constructed a steam locomotive. This locomotive, however, could be used for traction on roads only. The credit of perfecting the design goes to George Stephenson, who in 1814 produced the first steam locomotive used for traction in railways. The first public railway in the world was opened to traffic on 27 September 1825 between Stockton and Darlington in the UK. Simultaneously, other countries in Europe also developed such railway systems; most introduced trains for carriage of passenger traffic during that time. The first railway in Germany was opened from Nurenberg to Furth in 1835. The USA opened its first railway line between Mohawk and Hudson in 1833. The first railway line in India was opened in 1853. The first train, consisting of one steam engine and four coaches, made its maiden trip on 16 April 1853, when it traversed a 21-mile stretch between Bombay (now Mumbai) and Thane in 1.25hours. Starting from this humble beginning, Indian Railways has grown today into a giant network consisting of 63,221 route km and criss-crossing this great country from the Himalayan foothills in the north to Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari) in the south and from Dibrugarh in the east to Dwarka in the west. Indian Railways has a glorious past of more than 150 years. The developments in Indian Railways, its organization, and its working are explained in the following sections of this chapter. 1.1 Developments in Indian Railways Important developments in Indian Railways have been chronologically listed in Table 1.1.