Spitulnik shows, elsewhere in the world, radio can generate debate relevant to national politics (1992). In Britain, television viewing is much more of a group activity than radio listening. Radio consumption in the home is often solitary, and is more likely than television to be seen as an accompaniment to another, main activity. I have gained a general impression, through carrying out this research, that radio in this country is treated, by academics, politicians and media professionals (including some that work within the radio industry itself) as a poor relation to television. It is cheaper to produce radio programmes, and is less glamorous. The BBC has recently gone 'bi-media'. This means that previously separate radio production departments are merging with larger television departments, and that newsrooms, reporters and presenters are now required to be active in both radio and television. This is a cost saving move, yet it also displays an attitude to radio that assumes its compatibility with television in terms of programme production - radio is seen as television without the pictures. Whilst this may, on the surface, appear to make sense, radio as a medium, as it is consumed in the home, is shown in this thesis to be very different from television, and to be much more than television without pictures. Radio Listeners and Audience Research Whilst contemporary radio audiences are little studied by academia, the radio industry invests heavily in radio audience research. Chapter 2 of this thesis investigates how the radio industry researches and conceives of its audiences. From an analysis of how the industry thinks about, and constructs audiences, we can see how market models influence and shape the relationships between them. At first glance, this costly, and in some ways, extensive, audience research can appear to paint a detailed picture of radio listening in this country. Yet rarely does it do more than simply measure. From measurement, it seeks to explain, but it is ill-equipped to do so. This thesis highlights the inadequate understandings that the industry has of the role of radio in domestic life, although, I suspect, there is little contained herein, that will not be, in some degree, a part of the tacit knowledge of many radio sound producers. Very few academic, contemporary, radio audience studies exist, compared to masses of research and theorising around television audiencehood. Much of the research on radio is backward-looking, like the aural history study carried out by Moores (1988) before he went on to study the contemporary use of satellite television (1993). By omission, radio appears to be conceived of as an 'old' technology, with a diminishing and unimportant role in contemporary life, especially as compared with newer technologies. Studies, such as those by Briggs (1961, 1965, 1970), Scannell and Cardiff (1991) and Scannell (1992), chart the early history of British radio. Some attention has been paid to the changes that took place with the advent of television, in an historical context (Briggs 1979, 1995). Whilst these accounts place radio in a social and historical context, much is still to be understood about how radio is used today. Radio's early days, in the 1920's, 1930's and 1940's, are often depicted popularly as the 'golden days' of the medium - before television was introduced to the British public, and radio became lost in the background of domestic leisure. This thesis seeks to relocate radio sound in domestic lives, through investigating and interrogating the role that radio sound plays in contemporary daily lives. Barnett and Morrison conducted a study of contemporary radio listening in the 1980s, and at first glance, they seem to have shared my goals. They set out to 'examine the role of radio in people's lives' (1989:vii), by letting 'the listener speak'. They aimed to investigate how people use radio and the 'role which it plays in everyday life' (ibid. :ix). They found the medium to be 'inextricably woven into people's lives' (ibid. :3), and attributed the feelings of intimacy that their respondents said radio engendered 'as much to the intimate nature of what is heard [programmes] as to the flexible and private nature of the medium itself' (ibid. :4). Comments from listeners, who were either involved in group discussions (32 groups of 8-10 people), or who completed one of 997 questionnaires, suggested to them that 'to construe radio listening as just another manifestation of exposure to the "mass media" becomes inappropriate'; they found it to be a very different medium from television and newspapers (ibid. :3). Their respondents talked about radio as a friend, as personal, as part of the family, and as genuine (ibid.), all descriptions of radio that are often used by radio professionals, but rarely explored or explained in more depth. Despite their recognition of radio as intrinsically different from television, Barnett and Morrison compare the two when they present the results of survey questions asking which medium respondents would miss the most, if one were to be taken away. Sixty three per cent would miss television the most, whilst 28% would miss radio more than television (1989:5). Bamett and Morrison say that the 'starkness of these figures is misleading'; just because the majority of people would rather part with their radios than with their televisions, the figures 'should not detract from an appreciation of the integral part which the radio plays in their everyday lives' (ibid. :7). One of the explanations they put forward for the figures, is the role of radio as a secondary activity, that is, television viewing is more likely than radio listening to constitute a main activity, and therefore, television is a more primary and vital leisure activity in the home (ibid.). The research reported in this thesis would suggest that, to compare and contrast radio with television in this way is ultimately misleading. On the one hand, Barneti and Morrison recognise radio as very different from television in the ways it is used, and in how it is integrated into daily life. On the other hand, they measure the value of radio in people's lives by asking if they would rather lose their radio or television sets. The present study seeks to carry forward Barnett and Morrison's, and my own informants' recognition of the way in which radio is involved intimately in listeners' lives, to gain a deeper understanding, whilst avoiding the temptation of comparing radio with television, or of trying to understand radio in relation to understandings of television. Another study that would, on first inspection, appear to share my aims is Crisell (1986). Understanding Radio aims to 'determine the distinctive characteristics of the radio medium' (Crisell 1986:xi). This is the only similarity between Crisell's work and my own. He seeks to achieve his aim by 'examining the historical development of British radio institutions, and by developing a theory of signs, codes and conventions by which the medium conveys its messages' (ibid.). In doing so he describes radio as a 'blind' medium, because we cannot see its messages (ibid.:3), and seeks to understand radio's characteristics better by comparing it with television, literature and face to face interactions (ibid.:5). Since radio's codes are auditory, 'consisting of speech, music, sounds and silence' and since 'the ear is not the most "intelligent" of our sense organs', • . .the risk of ambiguity or complete communication failure are high, and so in all kinds of radio much effort is expended on overcoming the limitations of the medium, on establishing the different kinds of contexts which we would generally be able to see for ourselves. Crisell 1986:5 On the other hand, the blindness of radio, Crisell asserts, also holds the advantage of appealing to the imagination. Crisell contends that 'radio is of limited efficiency in conveying highly complex ideas and information' because neither its message or its context is 'visible', and because it 'exists in time and is therefore always evanescent' (1986:2 19). And yet, whilst the imaginary world that radio evokes is 'less' than the visible 'actual' world, in that it is 'generally less vivid', at the same time, it is 'more', because, 'this relative lack of vividness renders the listener capable of grasping a more complex reality than could be assimilated visually' (ibid. :220). Crisell goes on the describe 'the listener', who is 'grateffil for the opportunity to picture what is being described, but for not having to see it when he wishes to concentrate on the non-visual aspects of a message' (ibid.:220). Drawing on the work of the BBC's first Head of Audience Research (Silvey 1974), and on 'uses and gratifications' theory (see chapter 3), Crisell characterises the 'ordinary listener' as; not a mere receptacle. She becomes a listener through an act of choice: she selects certain programmes rather than others... She can reject or disagree with what she hears, and her natural human inertia will make it easier for her to resist the pressures to change her views than succumb to them. Challenge is stimulating but also discomforting: she is more likely to want to relax and be entertained than think... Crisell 1986:207 Cr1 sell seeks to explain the 'effect' of radio content on listeners, describing how radio fits into their lives, and what is distinctive about it as a medium. His observations and conclusions sit in stark contrast to my own. To define radio as 'blind' is to misunderstand the way in which radio actually works as sound. 'Blind' implies that radio sound is lacking something - presumably the visual. My research indicates that radio sound is used in highly creative and complex ways in everyday lives. It is used in these ways precisely because it is sound. This is what is distinctive about it, rather than its lack of a (concrete) visual dimension. In addition, to attempt to defme 'the listener' or 'the ordinary listener' is also highly inappropriate, if one is seeking to understand how radio is used, rather than to generalise characteristics of radio listening, which are artificially abstracted. Like Crisell, I am attempting in this thesis to 'understand radio' as a medium, to define what its particular qualities and characteristics are. An important aspect of this is to contextualise the use of radio, in this case, in domestic contexts. Partly because of his lack of contextualisation, Crisell wonders how one can theorise about the unconscious effects of media generally, and radio specifically. He suggests that the only way to do this, is to think about one's own personal experience (1986:2 11). Whilst I cannot claim that my own personal experiences have not influenced the conclusions reached in this thesis, it is out of the experience of empirical, extended fieldwork that the issues and themes raised in this thesis have emerged. Although there is a distinct lack of studies about contemporary radio audiences in Britain since the advent of television, there is a precedent to this study of radio in Bristol. In 1939, Jennings and Gill, in Broadcasting in Everyday Life, published their account of the social impact of radio, based on research carried out in a working class area of Bristol. Since that time, Bristol, 'everyday life', and broadcasting, have all changed significantly, yet, like me, Jennings and Gill look at how radio enhances domestic life, albeit from a completely different perspective. They describe the impact radio had at that time on home life. They found that, less than 20 years since the first broadcast in Great Britain, the 'wireless' had become a 'normal' part of domestic life. They found it to be more than simply recreational; 'People of both sexes and of all ages are learning to use their sets with discrimination, as a means of acquiring new interests and aiding individual development' (Jennings and Gill 1939:39). They found broadcasting to be 'an equalising and unifying factor in national life' (ibid. :40). Combined with increasing leisure time, improved income, and better education, Jennings and Gill thought broadcasting was helping to overcome parochialism and class barriers. Considering broadcasting's ability to 'penetrate into spheres inaccessible to professional educationalists', they thought that, if it could be 10 harnessed as an extension to the education service, it had the potential to 'create a public in which the desire to learn and create would be inherent' (ibid.). Most of the more recent academic work on the audiences of broadcasting in this country originates from British cultural and media studies, and has concentrated on television viewing. Of particular interest to this thesis is a movement, within the last 20 years or so, towards ethnographic and anthropological approaches to audience research in these disciplines (Gillespie 1995; Moores 1993; Morley 1992; Silverstone and Hirsch 1992; Silverstone 1990). This indicates the perceived appropriateness of further developing an anthropology of the media. Similarly, in America, there are those who are critical of the quantitative methods widely used in communication studies (Mg 1991, 1996; Lull 1988, 1990). In both continents, proponents of a qualitative approach, recognise the need to place the study of the consumption of domestic media technologies in the context of the home and family, or household (Lull 1990; Morley 1986, 1992; Seiter, Borchers, Kreutzner and Warth 1989; Silverstone and Hirsch 1992). In chapter 3 of this thesis, academic audience research, coming out of British cultural and media studies, is investigated. As the major focus of much of that work is on television, its value to the present work must be carefully assessed. Nevertheless, much of it has proved useful. Chapter 3 also explains the methods used in the current study, and firmly situates the research within the discipline of social anthropology. Material Culture This thesis is strongly influenced by material culture studies. Its genesis was a joint interest - in domestic interiors, and in radio listening. When thinking about the two together, it became clear that radio sound added to domestic environments, and thus should be amenable to a study coming from the perspective of material culture. This perspective has been good for the study of radio for many reasons. Perhaps most importantly, it has insisted that I do not dwell on the language of radio output, or the content of radio sound (programmes). This has heLped to maintain a clear focus on the quality of radio sound itself in the domestic sphere, without becoming reduced to a textual analysis, or degenerating into linguistic deconstruction. A material culture perspective understands things as part of our social worlds. This study presents 11 evidence, if evidence is needed, that a material culture perspective can provide 'insights into cultural processes which a more literal "anthropology" has tended to neglect' (Miller (in press) 1997:1). The more common preoccupation with language imposes intrinsic limitations on cultural study; Languages consist of relatively few specific domains. These might include the written word, speech and grammar. Each divides up the larger sense of linguistics into domains with their own specificity. These remain relatively restrained and encompassable differences. By comparison, material culture virtually explodes the moment one gives any consideration to the vast corpus of different object worlds which we constantly experience Miller (in press) 1997:6 Miller has demonstrated how the study of material culture can enrich anthropological understandings, moving the emphasis away from language, which has assumed an overblown importance in relation to material culture perspectives (1987). In his study of council house kitchens in east London, he shows how the state is (actively, interactively or passively) appropriated through the ways in which tenants use, decorate and change their standard kitchen fittings (Miller 1988). Thus, objects and domestic interiors have a resonance and a meaning far beyond their boundary walls. The consumption of objects and artefacts can be seen to resonate with meanings beyond the immediate context (Miller 1987, 1995a, 1995b, 1995c). Hirsch (1990) demonstrates ways in which the consumption of betelnut by the Fuyuge of Papua New Guinea, with its 'associations with authority, politics and a controlled and "civilised" image of the person' relates objects to a wider social sphere or 'imagined community' (following Anderson 1983) in ways that indicate the object's role in personal and social identity construction, and, the development of a national culture (Hirsch 1990:21-22). Spitulnik (1993), in a review of studies of mass media of relevance to anthropology, recognises the strong resonance in much of the work coming out of media and cultural studies, to Anderson's notion of 'imagined community'. Thus, media and objects would appear in some ways to hold similar characteristics, so that, we can think of objects as media, and of media as objects. In both cases meanings have implications beyond the immediate consumption or context. 12 Within material culture studies, objects, and their consumption, use and display are seen as communicating and constructing (or reconstructing) values and meanings on many levels, such as the personal, and the social, the local and the global. Objects can be seen as media, in that, meanings are continuously negotiated, mediating within and between different worlds. Nevertheless, the nature of mass media can be seen to hold different, or additional, properties from more tangible objects. We can consider what is special about a medium like radio, and its properties, that leads us to use it differently, in our personal and social identity construction, from other objects. According to Silverstone, Hirsch and Morley, households and individuals are striving for 'ontological security', that is 'achieving competence and status as a participant in a complex public economy' (1992:19). Information and communication technologies, they say, make this project particularly problematic, because media 'disengage the location of action and meaning from experience' (ibid. :20). They show how information and communication technologies, as media, are active, or perceived as active, in a different way from other consumed objects. In this study, there is a recognition of the importance of mass media to considerations of modernity and globalisation, and an insistence that the proper site from which to explore such macro issues, is the micro setting of the home (following Morley 1992:272). It is within the domestic setting, that understandings of the wider world and wider, or imagined, communities are formed. Out of their work on the Household Information and Communication Technologies (HICT) project, Silverstone, Hirsch and Morley (1992) created a model that attempts to explain the role that information and communication technologies (ICT5) play in the relationship between private households and public worlds. They concentrate on television, video recorders, computers and telephones, and claim that 'no general model of household practices and relations can ignore how people use objects' (ibid.: 15). ICTs are particularly problematical, because of their 'double articulation'. That is, they are both objects and media. They have a 'functional significance, as media' and as such 'they provide, actively, interactively or passively, links between households, and individual members of households, with the world beyond their front door' (ibid.). 13 Whilst technologies as different as television, video, computers and telephones are all 'active' in different ways, and have different qualities, Silverstone, Hirsch and Morley (1992) managed to create a model that, broadly speaking, explains ICTs role as mediator between the public and private spheres. They conceived of a model that demonstrates, or constructs, the relationship between the public and the private, and the role of ICTs within it. It is a transactional system, where value creation takes place alongside meaning (re)construction. Within the formal economy and society of the public sphere, are embedded individual household economies, with their own internal or private social relations. Commodities are 'incorporated and redefined in different terms, [when they enter the household] in accordance with the household's own values and interests' (Silverstone, Hirsch and Morley 1992:16). Different from the formal economy, although negotiated in relation to it, and embedded in it, these values and interests form the 'moral economy of the household' where its 'specific symbolic reality stands behind the objective economy of visible transactions' (ibid.: 17). This moral economy is specific to individual households and is where meaning creation takes place. The moral economy of the household is 'both an economy of meaning' and 'a meaningful economy' (ibid.: 18). It is an economy because there are negotiations and exchanges of meanings both internally and between the household and the public sphere, and it is moral as 'defined and informed by a set of cognitions, evaluations and aesthetics' (ibid). Households, and media audiences are, in this way, 'embedded audiences' (Silverstone 1990, 1994). Once we begin to think about radio sound as material culture in the home, it can be shown to contribute to textured domestic soundscapes. By thinking about radio sound in this way, we can also begin to understand how, thinking of a listener as simply consuming the content of radio output, and concentrating on the 'effect' of such content on the listener, is to limit the bounds of our understanding. Rather, radio sound, which is recognised by many as integrated into daily life, in an intimate way, can be understood as forming an important part of domestic environments, holding meaning and significance that reaches beyond the imediate context and physical confines of the home. Material culture studies reveal 'an endless creative and hybrid world' (ibid.). To study such a world, calls for flexibility and creativity. Each material domain is specific, 14 and objects themselves have no intrinsic meanings until they are appropriated and objectified into social worlds (Miller 1987). Miller says that form itself is used 'to become the fabric of cultural worlds' (in press 1997:6); chapter 4 places radio sound precisely, and literally, in this way - it is shown to create a texture within which one can live. As a part of the 'fabric of cultural worlds', radio sound is also located in an economy of meaning creation and negotiation. Rather than focusing on the 'moral economy of the household', this thesis pays attention to the affective and sensory dimensions of radio sound, and of domestic life and relationships. Adapting Silverstone et al's model, we can conceive of an affective economy which could be seen to mediate between public and private worlds. Sound and Emotion Domestic environments and radio sound are shown in this thesis to have affective dimensions. These can be seen to mediate between individuals in the home, and the wider world. On a sensory level, radio sound is shown to be particularly open to sensory creativity - a quality that in itself, makes the experience, activity, and meaning of listening to the radio, difficult to describe in words. Coming from the perspective of material culture studies, I look beyond the text of radio programmes, and consider radio sound as a sensory entity. Sound itself is thus seen to contribute to domestic environments in a 'material culture' way. (This is not without precedence, for example, Seremetakis (1 994a) sees the senses, perception, and memory as part of the material culture of modernity.) This thesis sees households and domestic relationships as embedded in a larger, social and meaningful world. Through examining the use of radio sound in the home we can see how meanings and relationships are negotiated and made, both within the household and beyond. Chapters 5, 6 and 7, are all, in different ways, looking at the affective dimensions of domestic everyday life, and indicating their social implications. Chapter 5 begins to establish the role that radio sound plays in the affective dimensions of everyday domestic life and relationships. Going back to the early work of Gregory Bateson (1958), a way of thinking about the emotional aspects of domestic life is found. Notions of intimacy, and of ideal relationships, are explored, along with the role of the 15