January19,2016 1:27 WSPCProceedings-9.75inx6.5in main page1 1 Quark-nova compact remnants: Observational signatures in astronomical data and implications to compact stars RachidOuyed∗,DenisLeany, NicoKoning,ZacharyShand 6 Physics and Astronomy, Universityof Calgary, 1 Calgary, Alberta, Canada 0 ∗E-mail: [email protected] 2 n Quark-novaeleavebehindquarkstarswithasurroundingmetal-richfall-back(ring-like) a material. These compact remnants have high magnetic fields and are misconstrued as J magnetars; however, several observational features allow us to distinguish a quark star 7 (leftbehindbyaquark-nova)fromaneutronstarwithhighmagneticfield. Inourmodel, 1 burstingactivityisexpectedfromintermittentaccretioneventsfromthesurroundingfall- backdebrisleadingtoX-raybursts(inthecaseofaKeplerianring)orgammaraybursts ] (inthecaseofaco-rotatingshell). Thedetailsofthespectraaredescribedbyaconstant E background X-ray luminosity from the expulsion of magnetic flux tubes which will be H temporarily buried by bursting events caused by accretion of material onto the quark . star surface. These accretion events emit high energy photons and heat up the quark h star and surrounding debris leading to hot spots which may be observable as distinct p blackbodies. Additionally, we explain observed spectral line features as atomic lines - fromr-processmaterialandexplainanobservedanti-glitchinanAXPasthetransferof o angularmomentumfromasurroundingKepleriandisktothequarkstar. r t s Keywords: dense mater; magnetic fields; stars: magnetars; stars: neutron; X-rays: a bursts;X-rays: stars [ 1 1. Introduction v 6 Analogous to a core-collapsesupernova, a quark-novais the explosion of a neutron 3 star which leaves behind a quark star. In the quark-nova model, the compact 2 4 remnant left behind is a quark star composed of deconfined up, down and strange 0 quarks in a color-superconducting phase. The quark star has many observable . 1 similaritiestoaneutronstarandisespeciallylikelytobemislabelledasamagnetar 0 due to its intrinsically high magnetic field at birth. As a compact remnant, the 6 quark star distinguishes itself from other compact objects by the properties of its 1 : constituent quark matter and its formation mechanism which ejects an r-process v i richcrustwhichleavesbehind metal richdebris. These properties causethe quark- X startoemitinX-rayandgammarayandcausesintermittentburstingphaseswhich r makeitanexcellentcandidatefornotjustmagnetars,butalsosoftgammarepeaters a (SGRs), anomalous X-ray pulsars (AXPs) rotating radio transients (RRATs) and X-ray dim isolated neutron stars (XDINs). 2. Quark-novae Quark-novaeconverttheparentneutronstarintoaquarkstar.1Theexplosiveevent ejectsanouterlayeroftheneutronstarcrust(∼10−3M⊙)andleavesbehindaquark star. The relativistic ejecta (γ ≥ 10) is initially an extremely dense (1014 g/cc) January19,2016 1:27 WSPCProceedings-9.75inx6.5in main page2 2 and neutron rich environment ideal for formation of heavy elements through the r- process (see Refs. 2, 3 and 4 for more details). This ejecta may be visible following thequark-novaeitherbyinteractionwithsurroundingmaterialasasuper-luminous or double-humpedsupernova,5,6 or by the decayof unstable r-processisotopes as a fast radio burst.7 Additional observationalevidence for this r-process richmaterial may exist in the form of gravitationally bound fall-back material surrounding the quark-star. Thisfall-backmaterialcaneitherformaco-rotatingshell,oraKeplerian disk depending on the period of the parent neutron star. The large amount of material(10−7M⊙)intheserotatingstructuresprovidesadditionalemissionspectra through both black-body radiation and accretion onto the bare quark star. 2.1. Quark-nova compact remnant: aligned rotator The quarkstarremnantofthe quark-novaisleftinacolour-superconductingphase andthe magneticfieldofthe quarkstarbecomesquantizedandconstrainedto vor- tices inanAbrikosovlattice. This resultsacompactobjectwhosesurfacemagnetic field becomes much stronger and is forced into alignment with its rotation through the Meissner effect.8 As the star ages, spin-down causes magnetic field vortex ex- pulsion which leads to heating of the quark star surface and X-ray emission from magneticreconnectionevents.9 Thisultimatelyleadstotheslowdecayofthequark star magnetic field and produces a compact body which cannot exhibit the light- house pulsations of a neutron star, but will instead appear in X-ray. The X-ray emission will decay over time and is consistent with observations of XDINS and SGRs (see Fig. 2 in 10). The luminosity of the vortex band is given by: L ≈2.01×1035η P˙2 ergs−1 (1) X X −11 where η is an efficiency factor for conversionof magnetic energy to radiation.1 X 3. Quark-nova connection to AXPs and SGRs During the quark-novaa smallfraction(∼10−7M⊙) ofthe ejecta will remaingrav- itationallybound. Depending ofthe spinofthe neutronstarprogenitor,this debris will form into either a co-rotating shell (P > 10 ms) or a Keplerian disk (P ∼ 5 ms). As with the escaped ejecta, this material will be rich in r-process (Z > 26) elements. This debris surrounding the quark star provides an additional source of material which may radiate or interact with the quark star. In both cases, it may be possible to identify the presence of two distinct blackbodies (where one is the quarkstar andthe secondis the surroundingdebris)attwo differenttemperatures. 3.1. Co-rotating debris: SGRs For slow rotating neutron star progenitors, the fall-back material will settle into a co-rotating degenerate shell surrounding the quark-star,11 where the surrounding shell is supported by the quark star’s magnetic field pressure. Because of this, January19,2016 1:27 WSPCProceedings-9.75inx6.5in main page3 3 there is a critical latitude at which material near the poles does not have sufficient magneticsupportto overcomethequarkstar’sgravitationalfield. Asthe starages, magneticfielddecay,contractionoftheco-rotatingshell,hydrodynamicinstabilities andchangesinthestabilitypointcauseaccretionofmaterialfromtheshellontothe quark star’s surface. These accretion phases cause sudden shearing off of material from the co-rotating shell and results in the release gamma rays as the accreted matter from the shell impact onto the surface of the quark star. During quiescent phases, these SGRs will be emitting in X-ray from the magnetic field decay as described by Eq. 1. 3.2. Keplerian debris: AXPs Rapidly rotating neutron stars will instead form a degenerate Keplerian disk sur- rounding the quark-star.12 The magnetic field of the quark star slowly penetrates through the degenerate ring and threads the inner ring. This penetration front (Bohm Front) proceeds through the degenerate layers of the ring and forces co- rotation of the inner threaded portion of the now non-degenerate inner section of the debris. At the front, before complete penetration and forced co-rotation with the magnetic field, the non-degeneratematerialis expelled fromthe disk througha Kelvin-Helholtzinstabilityandaccretedontothequarkstar’ssurface. Thisleadsto a stream of material from the Keplerian disk which is accreted onto the quark star creatinghot-spotsnearthe poles. Dissipationofmagneticbubbles generatedatthe ring during these outburst provides a source of transient radio emission which has beenassociatedwithsomeAXPsfollowingburstingperiods.13Whentheseaccretion eventshappentheinnerringofthediskwillbeheatedbyradiationfromthesurface ofthe quarkstar. Duringquiescentphases,the quarkstar–ringsystemshouldhave two emission spectra (X-ray and black body). During bursting, however,the inner portion of the ring will heat up (increasing its black body temperature) and hot spots on the quark star surface will become visible as an additional black body. Of course, as the material from the Keplerian ring is transferred onto the quark star, the star may be spun up or downdepending on radialdrift velocity of the accreted material which changes with the radial distance. As the quark star and Keplerian disk age, the ring begins to spread out and eventually succumbs to gradual mass leakage. The gradual accretion from the sur- roundingringprovidesa steadystreamofmatterontothe surfaceofthe quarkstar leading to an accretion dominated phase.10 Now the quiescent phase of the quark star’sX-rayluminosityisdominatedbytheaccretionluminosityofhotspotsonthe star. Asthedebrisisaccretedtheluminosityslowlydecreasesand,oncetheringhas been completely consumed, the quark star will return to the vortex band and emit primarilyX-raysfromthemagneticreconnectionoftheeverdecayingmagneticfield (see Fig. 2 of Ref. 10). This means that despite their differences early on, AXPs and SGRs will both eventually converge to the vortex band and eventually cease bursting activity after they have consumed the entirety of the fall-back material January19,2016 1:27 WSPCProceedings-9.75inx6.5in main page4 4 from the original quark-nova. 4. Quark-nova bursting signatures When a quark-star enters into its bursting phases, it will energize the surround- ing material. This transfer of energy heats up the surrounding debris and may cause atomic spectral line emission or cause changes to the rotational mode of the Keplerian disk. 4.1. Atomic 13 keV lines Spectral line features around 13 keV have been detected in severaldifferent AXPs. Thecommonexplanationforthesespectrallineshasbeenacyclotronemissioninthe atmosphere ofa magnetar. This explanationhas been strainedby the repeatedob- servationsofseveraldifferentline featuresatthesamefrequencyindifferentAXPs. Additionally, the magneticfield strengthinferred(assuming protoncyclotronemis- sion) is inconsistent with the characteristic magnetic field strength (inferred from period and spin-downmeasurements). Instead, we suggestthat this observedspec- tral feature may be an atomic transition line. Since the fall-back material from the quark-nova ejecta is so neutron rich, the degenerate ring or co-rotating shell is composed of r-process elements. Normally, these isotopes are too dim to de- tect spectroscopically; however, during bursting phases these elements are heated up and become spectroscopically visible. The frequencies at which these elements emit is then completely independent of magnetic field strength and would be at identical between frequencies for all AXPs. Analysis of the atomic line strengths of elements suggests that this is a 13 keV emission feature from a strontium or rubidiumline.14,15 Thenumber ofobserved13keVlines makesitunlikelythatthis is a proton cyclotron line since that would require the magnetic fields to be the same in each magnetar. As more of these spectral lines are observed, it may begin to statistically rule out magnetars altoghether and atomic line spectra provides a natural explanation for a common 13 keV line to be present in all AXPs. 4.2. Anti-glitches The observationof ananti-glitches associatedwith AXP 1E2259+586provedto be apuzzlingphenomena. Inourmodel,AXPburstsaregeneratedbyaccretionofma- terialfromasurroundingdisk.16 Theseburstingphasesre-energizethesurrounding materialandmaycauseretrogrademotioninasurroundingKepleriandisk. Forthis particularAXP, the hypothesis is thatthe observedburstin2002causeda reversal in the inner ring of the Keplerian disk. Then, in 2012, material from the ring was accretedcausingspin-downduetothe transferofangularmomentumfromthenow retrograde inner ring. As a result, further bursts from the same AXP may cause further anti-glitchesif the 2002burstwasenergetic enoughto reverseseverallayers January19,2016 1:27 WSPCProceedings-9.75inx6.5in main page5 5 of the surrounding inner ring. Coincident observation of atomic r-process spectral features would further strengthen this hypothesis. 5. Conclusion The quark-nova model proposes that quark stars are the compact remnant left behind following the explosion of a neutron star. The explosion process leaves behind debris which form a gravitationally bound disk or ring around the quark star. Thisquarkstar–debrissystememitsinX-rayandissubjecttoseveralbursting phases over the course of its lifetime leading to either SGRs, or AXPs. The X-ray luminosity generated by vortex expulsion is consistent with observations of SGRs and AXPs and suggests a common ancestry for both. This picture is similar to magnetarmodelsforAXPsandSGRs,butcanbedistinguishedbydetailedanalysis of the observedspectra. Basedon our model we expect that future bursting events should be associated with both low and high B magnetars and may be coincident with anti-glitches and r-proceess atomic spectral lines. Acknowledgments This work is funded by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. References 1. R. Ouyed, Ø. Elgarøy, H. Dahle and P. Ker¨anen, Meissner effect and vortex dynamics in quark stars. 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