Studies in Economic History Wayne Geerling Gary Magee Quantifying Resistance Political Crime and the People’s Court in Nazi Germany Studies in Economic History Series Editor Tetsuji Okazaki, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan Editorial Board Members Loren Brandt, University of Toronto, Canada Myung Soo Cha, Yeungnam University, Korea Nicholas Crafts, University of Warwick, UK Claude Diebolt, University of Strasbourg, France Barry Eichengreen, University of California at Berkeley, USA Stanley Engerman, University of Rochester, USA Price V. Fishback, University of Arizona, USA Avner Greif, Stanford University, USA Tirthanker Roy, London School of Economics and Political Science, UK Osamu Saito, Hitotsubashi University, Japan Jochen Streb, University of Mannheim, Germany Nikolaus Wolf, Humboldt University, Germany Aims and Scope This series from Springer provides a platform for works in economic history that truly integrate economics and history. 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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13279 Wayne Geerling • Gary Magee Quantifying Resistance Political Crime and the People’s Court in Nazi Germany Wayne Geerling Gary Magee Department of Economics Department of Economics University of Arizona Monash University Tucson, AZ, USA Caulfield East, VIC, Australia ISSN 2364-1797 ISSN 2364-1800 (electronic) Studies in Economic History ISBN 978-981-10-6007-6 ISBN 978-981-10-6008-3 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-6008-3 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017949270 © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore Foreword One of the exciting – if at times frustrating – things about doing research is its unpredictability. One can never know precisely what one will uncover until it is actually done. And there are always surprises and disappointments along the way. Indeed, as most seasoned researchers would no doubt attest, serendipity plays a significant part in the process of intellectual discovery. In an academic world now accustomed to talking in terms of the certainty of research strategies, management and planning, it may not be fashionable to say as much. But it is indubitably true. The project that gave rise to this book has had its serendipitous moments, too. In fact, it originated in a completely unpremeditated manner out of a casual conversa- tion between the authors about one of their PhD theses, which had been on juvenile resistance and opposition in Nazi Germany. From that discussion, two interesting observations unwittingly emerged. First, it was noted that while there existed an extensive and high-quality literature on internal resistance in Nazi Germany, there were nonetheless few books that gave a comprehensive overview of the relative contributions made by different types of resisters to the overall story of serious resistance. Yes, there were a number of very good accounts which listed the various resistance groups operative in Nazi Germany in a careful, encyclopaedic manner, but few of these, we felt, allowed a reader to assess which of these varieties of resistance were more prominent and impactful in different periods of the regime’s existence. We saw this as a significant gap in the literature and figured that by adopting a systematic, social scientific approach, such a concise account of resistance, which accurately placed all forms of resistance in an overarching story, might just be possible. Second, we also realised that the source material used in the aforementioned PhD on juveniles – court and investigation records for treason and high treason cases – contained, albeit in an unprocessed form, information, which, if properly collated, extended and analysed, could provide a solid quantitative foundation for such an account of serious resistance. We resolved to explore these insights further to see where it might take us. This book is a fruit of those efforts. We hope that upon reading, you will see it as a useful addition to our knowledge and understanding of serious resistance in Nazi v vi Foreword Germany and believe that it has gone at least some of the way toward realising the goals envisaged at the project’s inception. Time will tell. No research is created in an intellectual vacuum. This project is no exception. We acknowledge that the Quantifying Resistance Project would not have progressed so far had it not been for the generous support, comments and advice of a host of friends and colleagues. We are deeply indebted to many, not least among whom are David Addison, Friederike Bauer, Chongwoo Choe, Rosalind Hearder, Kim Huynh, Sisira Jayasuriya, Steffen Jöris, Stephen King, Alice Li, Stuart Macintyre, Michael Smiddy, Hans-Joachim Voth, Steven Welch, Wolfgang Wippermann, Jürgen Zarusky and the librarians and archivists in Germany, the United States and Australia who are far too numerous to mention individually. Special thanks also go to those col- leagues who have joined us along the way to write papers that have emerged, often largely unexpectedly, from the project and from whom we have learnt a great deal: Rob Brooks, Paul Raschky, Russell Smyth and Vinod Mishra. While their contribu- tions and insights are many, the errors that remain are ours and ours alone. For us, perhaps the most striking feature of our research into the resistance against Hitler has been the great diversity of people who, for one reason or another, were drawn into it. The attributes needed to stand up to the terror and brutality of the Nazi regime clearly did not belong solely to any one type of individual. Germans and Austrians of all backgrounds and persuasions defied the tyrannical. If, by writing this book, we are able to stir interest in others to remember, appreciate and seek out more knowledge about their bravery, then our research will have been worthwhile. Contents 1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 1 1.1 Understanding Resistance .................................................................. 3 1.2 Quantifying Resistance ...................................................................... 11 1.3 What Lies Ahead ................................................................................ 16 References ................................................................................................... 17 2 Sources ....................................................................................................... 23 2.1 The Dataset ........................................................................................ 26 Appendix 2.1: Variables Used in the Quantifying Resistance Database ..... 30 Personal and Familial Characteristics and Experiences ..................... 30 Characteristics of Charges and Trial .................................................. 31 Verdict and Sentencing ...................................................................... 33 Resistance Groups .............................................................................. 35 Environmental Factors ....................................................................... 36 Historical Influences .......................................................................... 37 References ................................................................................................... 37 3 Times and Places ....................................................................................... 41 3.1 Periodisation ...................................................................................... 41 3.1.1 The Breaking of Weimar-Era Resistance (January 1933–December 1935) ............................................ 50 3.1.2 Relative Stability and the Emergence of New Sources of Resistance (January 1936–December 1940) ...................... 50 3.1.3 Resistance Resurgent (January 1941–December 1941) ......... 50 3.1.4 Peak Resistance (January 1942–September 1943) ................ 51 3.1.5 Resistance and Regime in Decline (October 1943–May 1945) ..................................................... 51 3.2 Places ................................................................................................. 52 3.3 Summary ............................................................................................ 57 References ................................................................................................... 58 vii viii Contents 4 Faces and Contexts.................................................................................... 61 4.1 Age ..................................................................................................... 62 4.2 Gender ................................................................................................ 73 4.3 Occupation ......................................................................................... 75 4.4 Conclusions ........................................................................................ 79 References ................................................................................................... 81 5 Groups and Organisations ....................................................................... 85 5.1 Germany ............................................................................................. 86 5.2 Austria ................................................................................................ 103 5.3 Outside the Reich ............................................................................... 117 5.4 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 125 References ................................................................................................... 126 6 Crimes and Punishments .......................................................................... 131 6.1 Crimes ................................................................................................ 132 6.2 Punishments ....................................................................................... 140 6.3 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 161 References ................................................................................................... 162 7 Impacts and Implications ......................................................................... 167 7.1 Implications ........................................................................................ 168 7.2 Impacts ............................................................................................... 172 References ................................................................................................... 185 Index ................................................................................................................. 187 List of Abbreviations AAM Antifaschistische Arbeitergruppe Mitteldeutschlands AFÖ Antifaschistische Freiheitsbewegung Österreichs BBC British Broadcasting Corporation BDM Bund Deutscher Mädel CCL Conservative, Catholic and Legitimist groups CSP Christlichsoziale Partei DFP Deutsche Freiheitspartei DMV Deutscher Metallarbeiter-Verband DÖW Dokumentationsarchiv des österreichischen Widerstandes FAUD Freie Arbeiter Union Deutschlands FRG Federal Republic of Germany GDR German Democratic Republic GÖFB Großösterreichische Freiheitsbewegung HJ Hitlerjugend IÖKF Illegale österreichische kaiserliche Front IKD Internationale Kommunisten Deutschlands ISK Internationaler Sozialistischer Kampfbund KJVD Kommunistische Jugendverband Deutschlands KJVÖ Kommunistische Jugendverband Österreichs KPD Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands KPDO Kommunistische Partei-Opposition KPÖ Kommunistische Partei Österreichs NKFD Nationalkomitee freies Deutschland NKVD People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs NSDAP Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei ÖFB Österreichische Freiheitsbewegung ÖFF Österreichische Freiheitsfront OLG Oberlandesgericht RAF Rote Armee Fraktion RAF Royal Air Force RGBl Reichsgesetzblatt ix