gross richard PSYCHOLOGY The Science of Mind and Behaviour Seventh Edition 82997783144_7G1R82O9S7S3_47.ined_bT i t le1PG_V2.indd 1 170/142/0/250/1154 91:43:93 1AM Dedication To my beautiful daughters, T.N. and J.G., in the hope that, given time, love will prevail. Although every effort has been made to ensure that website addresses are correct at time of going to press, Hodder Education cannot be held responsible for the content of any website mentioned in this book. It is sometimes possible to find a relocated web page by typing in the address of the home page for a website in the URL window of your browser. Hachette UK’s policy is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products and made from wood grown in sustainable forests. The logging and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. Orders: please contact Bookpoint Ltd, 130 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4SB. Telephone: (44) 01235 827720. Fax: (44) 01235 400454. Lines are open from 9.00–5.00, Monday to Saturday, with a 24- hour message answering service. You can also order through our website www.hoddereducation.com © Richard Gross 2015 First published in 2015 by Hodder Education An Hachette UK Company 338 Euston Road, London NW1 3BH Impression number 5 4 3 2 1 Year 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 All rights reserved. Apart from any use permitted under UK copyright law, no part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or held within any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Further details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. 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Printed in Italy A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library ISBN: 978 1471 829734 9781471829734.indb 2 04/05/15 9:39 AM Contents Guided tour vi Preface viii PART 1: THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY 1 What is this thing called Psychology? 1 2 Theoretical approaches to Psychology 13 3 Psychology as a science 37 PART 2: THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR AND EXPERIENCE 4 The nervous system 51 5 Sensory processes 74 6 Parapsychology 89 7 States of consciousness and bodily rhythms 105 8 Addictive behaviour 125 9 Motivation 143 10 Emotion 159 11 Learning and conditioning 175 12 Application: Health Psychology 190 Part 3: COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 13 Attention 217 14 Pattern recognition 234 15 Perception: Processes and theories 246 16 The development of perceptual abilities 264 17 Memory and forgetting 281 18 Language and thought 302 9781471829734.indb 3 04/05/15 9:39 AM 19 Language acquisition 314 20 Problem-solving, decision-making and artificial intelligence 329 21 Application: Cognition and the law 345 PART 4: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 22 Social perception 363 23 Attribution 383 24 Attitudes and attitude change 394 25 Prejudice and discrimination 411 26 Conformity and group influence 431 27 Obedience 446 28 Interpersonal relationships 461 29 Aggression and antisocial behaviour 485 30 Altruism and prosocial behaviour 503 31 Application: the social Psychology of sport 519 PART 5: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 32 Early experience and social development 531 33 Development of the self-concept 554 34 Cognitive development 569 35 Moral development 589 36 Gender development 606 37 Adolescence 622 38 Adulthood 637 39 Old age 656 40 Application: exceptional development 672 9781471829734.indb 4 04/05/15 9:39 AM PART 6: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 41 Intelligence 689 42 Personality 713 43 Psychological abnormality: definitions and classification 736 44 Psychopathology 755 45 Treatments and therapies 779 46 Application: Criminological psychology 804 PART 7: ISSUES AND DEBATES 47 Bias in psychological theory and research 824 48 Ethical issues in psychology 837 49 Free will and determinism, and reductionism 855 50 Nature and nurture 870 Acknowledgements 884 References 887 Index 961 9781471829734.indb 5 04/05/15 9:39 AM GUIDeD toUR Critical Discussion 50.2 Are shared environments really that Helps you to analyse, evaluate and assess the validity of this scientific unimportant? information — a crucial component of Scarr (1992) acknowledges the influence of the A level and undergraduate study. environment on behaviour but claims that, in reality, the environment is very similar for many individuals. According to the ‘average [. . .] Research Update 42.1 Psychology is a research-driven field. Freud and neuroscience These updates let you see how scientific explanations change in light of new As we noted in Chapter 2, support for certain information, showing you ‘how aspects of Freud’s theories has been provided by the science works’. relatively new sub-discipline of neuropsychoanalysis (NP), one of the many spin-offs [. . .] Cross-Cultural study 35.1 trobriand Island boys and their fathers Understanding the cultural context of (Malinowski, 1929) scientific findings helps you to explain and evaluate a variety of methods and results ● Among the Trobriand Islanders of Papua New from different psychological studies. Guinea, boys were traditionally disciplined by their maternal uncle (their mother’s brother), rather than by their own [. . .] Ask Yourself With some key questions in mind (if not always answers!) you will more ● Do you agree with Skinner’s claim that thoughts easily understand the major studies and other ‘covert behaviours’ don’t explain and theories. our behaviour (because they cannot determine what we do)? Case study 4.1 It can be hard to link theories to real life. the case of the phantom hand Case studies give you concrete examples Tom Sorenson lost a hand in a car accident, after of people’s stories, and how they confirm or which his arm was amputated just above the elbow. challenge psychological research. When his face was touched in various places, he experienced [. . .] vi 9781471829734.indb 6 04/05/15 9:39 AM Key study 4.1 This feature explains the methods, When the left brain literally doesn’t know results and implications of some of what the left hand is doing (sperry, 1968) the more iconic or innovative work in ● Participants sit in front of a screen, their hands Psychology. free to handle objects that are behind the screen but which are obscured from sight. Chapter summary There is a lot to take in for your exams ● Biopsychology is the branch of neuroscience and essays. This feature will help you that studies the biological bases of behaviour. revise, build up your knowledge of the key Biopsychologists are only interested in biology for points and how they fit together. what it can tell them about behaviour and mental processes. 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oynean vnotncniog apeov.cps cs oem’fttuet t otat gnp sou tinfcebprIeuirhiesinaetwiasrrhoinfnnnoi es-o iislrdheoieoneoeedhrne-tratnd,oisnm ut flnonnm ler pciern? arspmreiagdaot ehnsi,aaoea uateoate dndh adlp ao gtrsroauphtn le uuantuclldrhsl ltmeiddn phd,.einuyoytnmea gststths, nis smeeido nia Rv s oue cdfotsfaeitwenaotbrapr ateea te o ua aihfe oetpam rnhoewontyew ooft deccahitncelwl-hyeflaf ivs ob fdhthantn leecvsoit oalcass eaeomeneceaudet;t toaete,te anenlmr sr gaaah e rhn dctrdpsinr k frtoxwcgtiri yfiurfrrnridri laehettassioeeiop gnfnt yoa eeeeelio iecdo mfr, epahgoycitn naeegpmka dfltentaenf n ogrntar paiuplrssfivf s eoidimleface el o os ildih.fileauinrtellmyoaoeilivre hnstficnaeohnnyeflotatiil m npi ir.ptnptlfi pgobhir ncj ont psedysmyaf ow ofetBll uc su res teal gd ygrro eifistonm ciiti euhtocelihrsatw pnntnem e rtatahtsfasf st ct a)nmo mienoetrche hgoih t aiaoetast noiltae nfideneeireettun ssh-ihyp afl m l t e csi dd yai ttci rsn,bsinnhh a e vi a ane ceane lsy gyt ITtoawTtbsBwtpuvactfcefctButustso‘CPlsratDHaRrdowsiddoeharhhhoohheohaeahhivonxrhlhcunnpofuyopocrueooeetaesTmtrcinieo mtar elqeeipi c pdreetepputr essmcveeldeilvVrreclhimsht oyiuss d wc tund e ea uu xeearrotif oirrafte aon‘dfeo,rveIli eltcuwunrt elcairan luhp aoev momlyarnrconpoe r abuc eea arnnoeat tdlmgwidan,cttniems tecafyhi l:atndtpm tfruxmdsBrrnu hpofi;el ht fttiruhiccirsdsc slo lar ostftotcegiehfpteheitaitu’pnt.nc itae tfirtliphi’ esvlf t n oynrtheiiso yr aeeoe ucro iltoyaeoTrIs io dteatcenehebinoeeal eti dropnui rirod, tdoirnhindl ueuscpfrsbtetyl ins nee noytfne ,nde fer rfdLs‘e li’pie egse;e s rugr riaBl c‘iys acs roos dgt dtp o,ose.y ainfsf,onicnrerbngtew e‘h pther hlh ate tnb.a iaua f werr oh:fwnnUahevrtVt tsnainfdptiso arnaesnooe dHimmv ls t tihphenediuha swietsRfeKhvwtSfouahtm sdp ma,sdeunbaiheuoe vaaollav ot eieoa vmtiielernc.eyylBeeed rsagtrllhlha dres orrwmydiwpa sinnolyyea hsr si Sn,milisc vedletiv;mesloolsnl tisuigeytaa’ rsa, ’dm hotnuVioByenn eaisie snh lhu epdeop rt ito llth–s2olfet eeoebcvevbvnusrriSgy d hi tpe s,mapaa :a ytoiria0o’lTiirtvr ee ime ssg keBe e fn n c oeowl -hnltrycomvrwf v iin0efwfVsnn trseepi nihrlueionlanoa gide , uynacaobnrero ce3 tor eb Snat aiaotn dfarttefyl hr tafhi .s isglrle sian.udoe pfuauelevr fro tmsnryhuPo nntr iiooieg tSyer fpativ etgdpeedndecrssp,fe pwsa nenhfn diselouo’ iaoievy sayitumnrynrssicp oedoes o .r tm agte:ran ihic ricya tnef ibmtcm b cnts anneerBs ren(woslcheo hht alr ighhh eds a aiate cfdi olr etwxssnhtoctanCrspim eot‘nooiBrr e oeoeyr stytntilcVsnoe tsa ritUlceanaieofy eu a n orslwssr tae rh ldneeaep rnsioteniuSc.csf oo stye Vg n,Krtre-fi ntrwi‘haenbrivfdfih ae r o shggsTceams,sfxn dngn b ewssSidru) .se d‘tetda ituelevonmthatet;iD il icf.sp ayglxe uro t se sHecnas asr ih uhmoasio idsrraaue pohtsBrtt a oa ntbeuctpo.mnkaisntefoi,sodosfy inoin b e cselv rwl o dttimgvecovHe’uiitt dtpoat pat ofwal’s nndehdmooe at etiuiact l ani ruV lats ntrordseioleynfoonie rfsgc ei tssuo nr goe’hpeet nsntnoaauD i.a wwiacupo npn au nt St;3omeh tg ovfsseneotr‘dsma ddnciBmfmeaean lue ccae ss5eha ee eneons haaicnhri oeanu ehehtlcwUnossmnl vi lclrroevhripsisoiani ot tpolmi arl, lfstnleo loeo iuc potyesdn poi foniilsili ed daaiftewfbBomao tseeh snlo b;mrntlclrb,air ineoi iynsne lu yee,e veaottst fscaslneeagngeyose 2neo agerh n iVg dm nertaaesn’dtnrsesastonoll(.a ix nrdg -hafteiooieetr avt t sul’Striod rixndlusM nudsefai ndlsohieibrorseatea v ge tnd ysa fnpe iagsaau t,tnrsh mgm rt esuittnral vvf etgy emahe n lgoe tlslhla eyhccdayado hie idosai st h.sodniveweeacth;st tn w;eoenom oni aife lo.v ueyheeelrnntiwnrl ydi d ye irg, eyeif ed,r r eil t.d t o ry)le e r, s.h y s r .d . 28 29 vii 9781471829734.indb 7 04/05/15 9:39 AM PReFACe By the time this 7th edition of Psychology: The show is that there’s always a ‘story’ behind a Science of Mind and Behaviour is published, it will theory or chosen research project. Research be 28 years since the first edition appeared (and doesn’t appear out of nowhere and what particular 30 years since the contract for that first edition Psychologists investigate isn’t a random event. was signed!). Needless to say, much has changed So, every time you read about a particular study, within Psychology in that time, and yet some of psychological concept or construct, or full-blown the basic questions that researchers have been theory, remember that behind it are one or more exploring – and philosophers before them – are human beings, each with their ‘story’ of how they still being asked. came to be researching that topic rather than Despite the advent of e-books and the evolution some other area of Psychology. of electronic media in general, the task of the For the first time in this book, I’ve chosen to textbook author has remained essentially the same. refer to the discipline of Psychology (and sub- Something that you, as a student having to write disciplines) with an upper case ‘P’. This applies essays, seminar papers, and dissertations, and I, as a also ‘Psychologists’. When used as an adjective textbook author, have in common, is the challenge (‘psychological’), or when referring to what of deciding what is best to include and exclude Psychologists actually study (various aspects of within what are always finite resources – time, human and non-human psychology), a lower money, words, and so on. Users of this book are case ‘p’ is used. This isn’t just a matter of stylistic (mainly) students new to Psychology, who need to preference; distinguishing between ‘Psychology’ know something of its past in order to appreciate as a scientific discipline and ‘human psychology’ where it is now – and where it might be going in as what Psychologists investigate highlights the the future. In order to make room for discussion of unique nature of Psychology: it’s where people recent developments, I have continued what was study themselves as people, using the same human started in the 6th edition, namely, to reduce the abilities that they (often) are investigating. Even amount of detail when describing the older (but more importantly, what Psychologists tell us never redundant) material. Also, I’ve sometimes about ourselves may actually change us, i.e. our sign-posted the reader to alternative sources of psychology. material, rather than providing a cursory summary Part of the appeal of previous editions was of a particular study or theory. that they catered for the needs of students on a One of the features new to the 6th edition, and wide range of courses, without being written which has been retained in the 7th, is the ‘Meet specifically or exclusively for any one group. I the Researcher’ feature. While these haven’t been hope – and trust – that the same can be said of updated, in all cases their original contributions this 7th edition. As before, please let me know remain as relevant and informative as they were what you think of my efforts (via the publisher) – when they first appeared. As well as providing it’s not just students who need feedback! additional material to what’s covered in the main body of the textbook, what their contributions Richard Gross viii 9781471829734.indb 8 04/05/15 9:39 AM CHAPteR 1 WHAt Is tHIs tHInG CALLeD PsYCHoLoGY? A brief history Classifying the work of Psychologists IntRoDUCtIon and oVeRVIeW Ask Yourself ● If you’re completely new to Psychology, what do you expect it to consist of? ● If you’ve studied it before, how would you define it and what’s the range of topics/ subjects it covers? ● How does it differ from other disciplines, such as physiology, sociology and anthropology? The opening chapter in any textbook is intended to ‘set the scene’ for what follows, and this normally involves defining the subject or discipline. In the Figure 1.1 case of Psychology, this isn’t as straightforward as you might expect. Definitions of Psychology A BRIeF HIstoRY have changed frequently during its relatively short history as a separate field of study; this reflects The word ‘psychology’ is derived from the Greek different, and sometimes conflicting, theoretical psyche (mind, soul or spirit) and logos (knowledge, views regarding the nature of human beings and the discourse or study). Literally, then, Psychology is the most appropriate methods for investigating them ‘study of the mind’. The emergence of Psychology (see Chapter 2). as a separate discipline is generally dated from 1879, These theoretical differences partly reflect the when Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychological complexity of the subject-matter. Perhaps more laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany. importantly, there’s a very real sense in which we are Wundt and his co-workers were attempting all ‘Psychologists’ in our everyday lives: Psychologists to investigate ‘the mind’ through introspection as scientists/researchers use fundamental cognitive (observing and analysing the structure of their own processes in order to investigate those same conscious mental processes). Introspection’s aim was processes (such as perception and memory); hence, to analyse conscious thought into its basic elements Psychologists (with an upper-case ‘P’) study human and perception into its constituent sensations, much psychology (with a lower-case ‘p’), making the as chemists analyse compounds into elements. relationship between the discipline and the subject This attempt to identify the structure of conscious matter unique. However, there are important thought is called structuralism. differences between the Psychologist-as-investigator Wundt and his co-workers measured and recorded and the person-as-‘Psychologist’. the results of their introspections under controlled Also, the boundaries between Psychology and other conditions, using the same physical surroundings, subject disciplines aren’t clearly drawn, and what the same ‘stimulus’ (such as a clicking metronome), this chapter aims to do is make them sufficiently the same verbal instructions to each participant, and clear to enable you, the reader, who may be ‘visiting’ so on. This emphasis on measurement and control Psychology for the first time, to find your way around marked the separation of the ‘new Psychology’ from this book – and the subject – relatively easily. its parent discipline of philosophy. 1 9781471829734.indb 1 04/05/15 9:39 AM