Psychology of Emotion Since the turn of the twenty-first century, the psychology of emotion has grown to become its own field of study. Because the study of emotion draws inspiration from areas of science out- side of psychology, including neuroscience, psychiatry, biology, genetics, computer science, zoology, and behavioral economics, the field is now often called emotion science or affective science. A subfield of affective science is affective neuroscience, the study of the emotional brain. This revised second edition of Psychology of Emotion reviews both theory and methods in emotion science, discussing findings about the brain; the function, expression, and regulation of emotion; similarities and differences due to gender and culture; the relationship between emo- tion and cognition; and emotion processes in groups. Comprehensive in its scope yet eminently readable, Psychology of Emotion serves as an ideal introduction for undergraduate students to the scientific study of emotion. It features effective learning devices such as bolded key terms, developmental details boxes, learning links, tables, graphs, and illustrations. In addition, a robust companion website offers instructor resources. Paula M. Niedenthal is Professor of Psychology and director of the Niedenthal Emotions Lab at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Her research crosses the areas of the psychology of emotion and the affective neurosciences, and focuses on the ways by which individuals repre- sent and process emotional information. François Ric is Professor of Psychology and laboratory director at the Université de Bordeaux. His research focuses on the underlying processes of social behaviors, with a special interest in the role of emotions, and in implicit processes. Psychology of Emotion Second Edition Paula M. Niedenthal and François Ric Second edition published 2017 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2017 Taylor & Francis The right of Paula M. Niedenthal and François Ric to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. [First edition published by Routledge 2006] Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Names: Niedenthal, Paula M., author. | Ric, François, author. Title: Psychology of emotion : interpersonal, experiential, and cognitive approaches / by Paula M. Niedenthal and François Ric. Description: Second Edition. | New York : Routledge, 2017. | “First edition published by Routledge 2006”. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016033789 | ISBN 9781848725119 (hb : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781848725126 (pb : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781315276229 (e) Subjects: LCSH: Emotions. Classification: LCC BF511 .N534 2017 | DDC 152.4—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016033789 ISBN: 978-1-84872-511-9 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-84872-512-6 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-27622-9 (ebk) Typeset in Times by Apex CoVantage, LLC Visit the companion website: www.routledge.com/cw/Niedenthal Contents Acknowledgements x How to Use This Book xi 1 Theories of Emotion 1 Definitions of Emotion 2 Theories of Emotion 3 Evolutionary Theories 5 Causes of Emotion: Adaptive Challenges and Opportunities 5 Biological Givens: Basic Emotions 6 The Integration of Experience: Affect Programs 9 Appraisal Theories 10 Causes of Emotion: Specific Appraisal Patterns 11 Biological Givens: Valence and Novelty Appraisals 12 The Integration of Experience: Independent Components 13 Psychological Constructionism 14 Causes of Emotion: Categorizing Affect Responses 15 Biological Givens: Core Affect 16 The Integration of Experience 17 Summary 18 2 Methods for the Science of Emotion 26 Manipulating Emotions 27 Ethical Guidelines 27 Affective Images—The International Affective Picture System 28 Recall of Emotional Memories 29 Films 29 Music 30 Scripted Social Interaction 31 Naturally Occurring Emotions 33 Induction Methods Are Not All the Same 34 Measuring Emotions 35 Questionnaires 36 Facial Expression 37 Central Nervous System 39 vi Contents Peripheral Nervous System 41 Assessment Methods Are Not All the Same 43 Summary 44 3 The Emotional Brain 49 The Peripheral Nervous System 50 The Central Nervous System 50 Neurotransmitters 51 Models of the Emotional Brain 52 Historical Models 52 Contemporary Models 53 Shared Representations for Emotion Perception and Production 62 Mirror Neurons and Emotions 62 The Neurochemistry of Emotions 64 Summary 66 4 Functions of Emotion 72 How to Know That Emotions Are Functional 73 Consequences of Emotion Deficits 73 Benefits of Emotional Intelligence 74 Survival Function of Emotion for the Individual 74 Physiology 74 Polyvagal Theory 75 Emotions and Goal Adjustment 76 The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions 77 Communication Function of Emotion for the Dyad 80 Function of Features of Facial Expressions 80 Facial Expressions as Behavior Regulators 81 Functions of Smiles in Dyadic Interaction 82 Social Functional Theories 83 Social Coordination Function for the Group 85 Group Formation 86 Bringing Group Members Back into Line 87 Group Governance 87 Collective Action 88 Summary 90 5 Expression of Emotion 98 The Mechanics of Facial Expressions 99 Origin of Facial Expressions 101 Evolution and Function of Facial Expressions 101 The Question of Cultural Universality 104 What Facial Expressions Convey: Emotion Readout Versus Social Motivations 106 Facial Expressions Influence the Experience and Perception of Emotions 108 Embodied Simulation and Emotion Perception 109 Contents vii Beyond the Face: Other Components of Emotion Expression 111 Bodily Expression of Emotion 111 Emotion in the Voice 113 Combining Emotion Expression Components in Context 115 Summary 116 6 Self-Conscious Emotions 124 Defining Self-Conscious Emotions 125 Cognitive Achievements Underlying Self-Conscious Emotions 125 Self-Evaluative Emotions 126 Guilt and Shame 127 Embarrassment 129 Pride and Hubris 132 Social Comparison Emotions 134 Envy 134 Jealousy 135 Summary 142 7 Happiness 149 What Is Happiness? 150 What Does Happiness Do? 152 How Does Happiness Do That? 153 Do You Really Know What Makes You Happy? 153 Affective Forecasting 154 Impact Bias 155 Memory Bias 155 Hedonic Adaptation 157 Social Comparison 158 Cutting Up the Happiness Pie 158 Biology 159 Life Circumstances 159 Daily Life 159 Behaviors That Increase Happiness 160 Gratitude 160 Savoring 161 Mindfulness 161 Positive Relationships 162 Generosity and Helping 163 Optimism and Defensive Pessimism 164 Summary 166 8 Emotion and Cognition 172 Mental Representation of Emotion Knowledge 173 Emotion Shapes Perception 176 Emotional Objects Capture Attention 177 Emotion Influences the Scope of Attention 178 viii Contents Emotion-Congruent Word and Face Processing 179 Emotion Influences Memory 180 Memory for Emotional Events 180 Mood-Congruent Memory 183 Mood-State–Dependent Memory 184 Judgment and Decision Making 184 Emotion and Judgment 185 Emotion and Decision Making 189 Summary 191 9 Emotion Regulation 198 Motives for Regulating Emotions 199 Emotion Regulation Strategies 200 Antecedent-Focused Regulation Strategies 201 Response-Focused Strategies 202 Cognitive Reappraisal 202 Suppression of Expressive Behavior 204 Comparing Reappraisal and Expressive Suppression 204 Cognitive Consequences of Expressive Suppression and Cognitive Reappraisal 204 Social Consequences of Expressive Suppression and Cognitive Reappraisal 205 Emotional Thought Suppression 207 Rebound of Suppressed Thoughts 207 Emotional Rebound 209 Social Sharing of Emotions 210 Social Sharing and Emotional Recovery 210 Assimilation and Accommodation 211 Emotion Regulation and Health 213 Cultural and Individual Differences 214 Summary 215 10 Emotion and Group Processes 222 Group Emotions 223 Emotional Contagion 224 Explanations of Emotional Contagion 226 Emotion on Behalf of a Group 231 Emotions about Other Groups 233 Emotion as the Basis of Prejudice 233 Emotion and Intergroup Behavior 234 Models of Emotions and Intergroup Behavior 235 Intergroup Contact and Emotions 238 Summary 240 11 Gender and Emotion 247 Stereotypes of Men’s and Women’s Emotions 248 Emotion-Specific Stereotypes 249 Contents ix Context-Specific Stereotypes 250 Prescriptive Norms 251 Emotional Behavior of Men and Women 252 Emotional Experience 253 Emotional Expressiveness 254 Emotion Competences 255 Sending and Reading Facial Expressions 256 Emotion Knowledge 257 Emotion Regulation 257 Neural Underpinnings of Emotion 258 Origins of Gender Differences in Emotion 259 Stereotypes Create Differences 259 Socialization of Emotion 261 Social Roles 262 Emotion, Gender, and Culture 263 Intersectionality 264 Summary 266 12 Universals and Cultural Differences in Emotions 272 A Brief History of Cross-Cultural Studies of Emotion 273 Looking for Similarities 274 Expression of Emotion in Movement and Music 274 Bodily Feelings of Emotion 275 Looking for Difference 277 Emotional Expression Dialects 277 Expressiveness of Northerners and Southerners 279 Antecedent Events 280 Appraisals 280 Culture and Cultural Difference 281 Culture Constructs 281 Social-Orientation Expectations 281 Religious Values: Dialetical vs. Optimizing Doctrines of Positive Emotions 287 Social-Ecological Factors: Historical Homogeneity-Heterogeneity 290 Summary 292 Index 299