for Cambridge International AS &A Level Craig Roberts • OXFORD V1'1fVERSITY PlU!SS Creal CJarcnclon S1.rect. Oxford OX2 601'. U1utcd K1ugcloru Oxrorcl University Press is a cleparllucul ofthl' Uuiv1•rsi1y or Oxford.It rtuthcrs the Univcnily's objcctiv1· or <'X('('lk11cc ill ·~·S<'ru-<'11. S<'holarship. ancl ccluca1io11 by publishing worklwiclc. Oxforcl is a regi~tcrecl trade mark ofOxfo1'11U11iv1•rsily1'1"CSS in the UK nucl ill 1·c1tain other co1u1tncs © Oxfonl University Press 2014 'l11c morn! rights of th<' authors have bccu nsst·11ccl fll'Sl publishccl in 2014 All nghts re;;crvccl. No part of this publicallou ruay be reproducccl. stored tu a rcn:icvnl system. or trausm1ll<'d. u1 any fom1 or by any rue ans. without tbc prior pcnu1ss1on 111 wncu1g of Oxforcl U111vcNity Press. or as expressly pcnniucd by law. by licence or 1111clcr 1en11s agreed with tlH• appropnatc l'<'pmgrn1>hics rights organization. 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TI11' publishers would like to thank LhC' following for pcnnis•ions lo use thl'1r photographs: Cover image: Jrunes DaulelsfSlnnterstock; p22: ll•kccJ/ Shullcl'\todc; p73: jruues Holmes/Sc1e11C'I' Photo Libr.uy; p99: Sally \\Thcclwright/Sciena> Direct: pl91: Anita W1·~1c-rvl'ltfFFMA p192: Uoycl C1nlflCORBIS; pt93: Ht>iuz Duckla1~AP; pl98: Anni" KitzJuan/ ~111111 1·1..,tock; p205: Ile Yi/OuuaFotoP1'C>~ p206: St<·vc VicU<'r I Alarny: p249: Vru1 D BuclierfGclly linage>; p243: Associated Pn-ss Artwork by Six Reel Marbles Thr author ancl publisher a1'C gratl'ful lo Lhe following for 1JCn11is,1ou to rcp1illt t·opyTight material: An1erlcan Psychological Association (APA) for cxtra<l from thl' lins>lcs/llphds SC'lle Que!o"lionnaire in th<' Ap1x·11clix to "l11e hnpan of Daily Stress on Health and Mooct P>ychologiral and Social R<'sonn·t>s as Mediators' by Anita Ocl.ongis. S11sa11 Folkman & Richan! S Lazan1s. joun1al of Pl.'rsonaluy ruul Social Psydiology Vol. 54:3 ( 1983). pp 486-495. Bowling Green Stace Universiry. Psychology Depart mcnt for extran from tbc Job Descriptive Index fron1 Tiae Measurement or Satisf~ion in Work ancl Retirement: a Strategy for Hie Study of Attituclcs by I' C Smith. I. M KcncWJ. & C L Hnlliu (Rru1<1 McNally. 1969). Elsevier for thc !.RR.\ quc!o"l101111aire fr0111 111c Social RcadJt1''1111Clll R;iung Scale' byT H Holmes & R II Rahc.joun1al of Pyschosomauc Research . Vol 11: 2 (1967). pJ> 213·218. copyright© 1967. internal ion al Associado n for the Stncly of Pain (11\SJ>) for the MPQ in ··nw Mc(; Ill Pain Qu<>slionnaire: Major pro1x•rtics :ind sco1·iug melhods' by Ronalcl Mclzack.Jonn u:il ofl'ai11, Vnl 1 (1975). pp 277·299. IOS Press BV for Figu~ 2: · R;inclomization of participants Io 011e of1wo1c,1 co11d1tio11~'. fro1u Yi·Nuo Shih. Rong·llwa H1~111g & Hsing· Yu Chiang: 'Backgrom1cl Mu>ic: Effects 011 allc111io11 1:ierfonu:u1cc·. work 42 (2012), pp 573-578. PARS Intematlonal Corp for ·37 who saw ruurderd1dn't call !lac police; ApatJ1y al ~abb111g ofQuccn's woman sboclcs Inspector' by Martin Gansberg. TI1e New York Times. 27 March 1964. ropyrigbt © 'l11c New York Tuues 1964. All Rights rc•crvc<l Usccl by pt>nnh>ion aucl 1>1'0tcc:te<I by !lie Copyright Laws of the· 1Jni1ccl Stall's. ·nw prillling, ropying. ~distribution . 01· 1t'll'l111s111i»1on of this C.0111e111 without 1•xpr<.'SS prnnission is prohibitt•d. David J Weiss for CX[rael from the Mluncsota ~atisfoction Queslionnairc ill v,ication;i\ Psychology RcS<'arch by DJ W<'i.ss. (; W Engl:ind, & I. II Lofi111ist. Universicy ofMiuuesota, copyrigh1 © 1977. Although we havc 111aclc every effort to trac:c :uul coutncl Rll ropynghl holdrrs before publication Lb1s has not been poss1blc in all cases. If uouficd. the publisher will rectify :u1y errors or omisStou~ :u lhr earliest opportunity. Auy lltlrd party use oftlus n1atcrial outside oftlus p11bhc:al1on ts prohibited Interested parties should apply lo tl1e co11)'Tagh1 holders uul1catccl 111 cacli case. INTRODUCTION This book has been \vritten as a companion to support you throughout your Psychology International AS and A Level course. The book is divided into two parts: one for the AS Level and one for the A Level 1 he AS part \Viii guide you through all 20 Core Studies and the A level part \Viii guide you through the t\vO options you have chosen to study (fro1n the five available). 111ere are a range of activities throughout the book Lo get you thinking psychologically which is ideal preparation for the exanlinations. 111ere are also san1ple exa1nination questions for you to answer. There is an acco1npanying Revision Guide '"hich \Vil! cover marked student exainples so you can practice anS\\tering exan1-style questions to the best of your abilities. This '"ill be a separate book. r Craig is a freelance tutor and author of psychology tex'tbooks. He has been teaching for over 20 years and is an experienced examiner \vith a number of National and International examination boards. I sin1ply have to thank everyone \\tho has made an impact on my life and '"ho support nie through every venture I take on. 111is indudes my family, closest friends and cat! I could and \vould not be doing this \Vithout any of you. A special thank you has to go to all the teachers I trained in Florida in February 2014 for niaking niy first training event brilliant r \VOuld also like to thank Matt Jarvis for his kind permission to use his material from OCR AS Psychology. I To Mum & Dad. Ahvays love you. • CONTENTS Approaches and perspectives in psychology .......................................... v Ho'v psychologists research ....................................................... J issues and debates 'vithjn psychological research ........................ 7 0 Cognitive psychology .............................................................. I 3 Social psychology ................................................................... 29 Developn1ental psychology ...................................................... 47 0 Physiological psychology ......................................................... 65 The psychology of individual differences .................................. 87 AS-.Le·vel Exam Cent re .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . l 07 Psychology and education ..................................................... 111 0 Psychology and health ........................................................... 147 Psychology and environment ................................................. 177 Psychology ru1d models of abnormality ................................... 207 CD Psychology and organisations ................................................ 239 A-Le·vel Exan1 Centre ....................................................................... 275 • APPROACHES AND PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY There are n1any different ways in 1vhich psychologists try to explain human and animal behaviour. 'These approaches and perspectives in psychology forn1 the whole discipline of "psychology''. However, they are all very diflerent and this chapter will cover ho1v these different types of psychologist try to explain behaviour. TI1ere are five approaches and two perspectives that CIE expect you to kno1v about. We will look at each in turn highlighting their general assun1ptions, the n1ain research meLhodology they use and 1vhich studies from AS-level fit into each one. Cognitive psychology Cognitive psychologists are interested in ho1v 1ve process information. They look into ho1v 1ve input information, then ho1v 1ve process that information and finally ho1v 1ve retrieve and/or use that information. Some cognitive psychologists believe that the brain 1vorks like a computer follo1ving the procedure of input-process/storage-output. Areas of interest include memory and forget ting, perception, language and attention. The AS-level studies listed in the Cambridge syllabus under this section are: 1. Mann, Vrij & Bull (2002) 2. Loftus & Pickrell (I 995) 3. Baron-Cohen et al (200 I) 4. Held & 1-iein ( 1963). The niain research 111ethod used in this approach is laboratory experin1ents. Many findings are based on research conducted 1n a laboratory. As variables are controlled it means that findings are more likely to be reliable. Therefore, it can be seen as being a sc1ent1fic approach. As cognitive psychologists are investigating processed information that cannot be seen directly, there is still an element of guesswork and inferences. • • The approach is useful 1n terms of being able to help improve everyday life 1n humans by. for example. improving memory or improving eyewitness testimony -·--· Comparing the human information processing system to that of a computer 1s reduct1on1st. It ignores the role of emotional and social factors on how we process information. Social psychologists are interested in ho1v we '\vork" in the social 1vorld. They look at ho1v individuals interact 1vith each other and ho1v 1ve interact in "groups". Therefore, they look at the individual as an individual but also as a group men1ber and see ho1v this affects behaviour. 'I hey also exan1ine ho1v the role of culture and society aftects our behaviour. Areas of interest include prejudice, obedience and confonnity. The AS-level studies listed in the Cambridge syllabus under this section are: 1. Milgran1 (1963) 2. Haney, Banks & Zimbardo (1973) 3. Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin (1969) 4. Tajfel ( 1970). The main research methods used in this approach are questionnaires and interviews. The approach does tend to look at the individual "as a whole" to try to explain behaviour across situations. Therefore. it is more holistic rather than reductionist. The approach is useful in terms of being able to help improve everyday life 1n humans by, for example, reducing prejudice or explaining atrocities. Development A lot of evidence from this approach is from studies that have used questionnaires and 1nterV1ews. Therefore, the validity may be reduced as what people say they will do and what they actually do can be very different It can be very difficult sometimes to distinguish between what is influenced by the 1nd1v1dual and what is Influenced by the situation people find themselves in. This can make designing studies difficult and then drawing the correct conclusion may be difficult. sychol Development psychologists are interested in ho1v 1ve "develop" as a person fron1 birth to death. Nlany development psychologists focus on "child development" and what sorts of things affect ho1v a child develops psychologically and socially. They also look at ho1v physical development might affect psychological development. Ho"•ever, there are other psychologists 1vho 1vill examine development over a lifespan. Therefore, they may examine development from adolescence through early adulthood into late adulthood. Areas of interest include moral development, cognitive development and social developn1ent. The AS-level studies listed in the Can1bridge syllabus under this section are: 1. Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) 2. Freud ( 1909) 3. Langlois el al ( 1991) 4. Nelson (I 980). The main research methods used in this approach are observations and longitudinal studies. Longitudinal studies are an excellent way to assess development over time with participant variables being controlled for. This makes findings from these types or study more valid as the same people are being followed over a period or time. Also, as we are following the same people over time, we can examine what is down to nature and what is down to nurture in terms of how these influence people's developmental pathways as humans. Longitudinal studies can be very time consuming and costly and participants wHI drop out (participant attrition can be high). As a result, findings may be difficult to generalise to outside of the participants who are left as there may only be a few and they could be unique. There may be ethical issues with studying children over time. This is because before they are 16 years old their parents have to give informed consent. Therefore, the children are not giving their own informed consent and may never want to take part in tests and studies. Physiological psychology Physiological psyd1ologists are interested in ho\v our biology affects our psychology. TI1ey look at the role of things like genetics, brain function, horn1ones and neurotransn1itters have on our behaviour. Many physiological psychologists believe that our behaviour can be explained via biological mechanisms more so than psychological mechanisn1s. However, others believe that it niay be an interaction between the t\vo. Areas of interest include origins of n1ental disorders, treatments of mental disorders, sleep, circadian rhythms and localisation of brain function (\vhich parts of the brain are responsible for di ffercnt behaviours). The AS-level studies listed in the Cain bridge syllabus under this section are: 1. Schachter & Singer ( 1962) 2. Dement & Kleitman ( 1957) 3. Maguire, Fracko,viak & Frith ( 1997) 4. Den1atte, Osterbauer & Spence (2007). • • 'fhe main research method used in this approach is laboratory experiments. Strengths Weaknesses The approach is very scientific as 1t uses methods such as laboratory expenments, blood tests. brain scanning, etc. These are highly controlled methods that can easily be tested for reliability. We can draw cause-effect conclusions more easily as a resull As we are dealing with biological mechanisms, it 1s an excellent way to assess which of our behaviours are due to nature and which are due to nurture. The approach can be seen as being reduc1ion1st as it ignores the roles of social and emotional factors 1n our development. As many studies take place under controlled laboratory cond1llons. many studies lack ecological validity and mundane realism. Therefore, some b1olog1cal reactions may be tnggered because of being In a controlled environment and may not necessarily be the same in a real- world setting. "--~~~~~~~~~~~~--'-~ The psychology of individual er_ This approach looks at ho'"· as individuals, '"e differ fron1 one another. Instead of looking for explanations that could explain hO\V lots of people 1nay behave, psychologists \vho research into this area look at \Vhat makes the individual unique. Therefore, there are differences between people that may be part of the san1e group. Rather than looking for general laws, psychologists \Vho research into this area may focus more on \Vhat makes the individual different from the others around him or her. The AS-level studies listed in the Cambridge syllabus under this section are: 1. Rosenhan(l973) 2. Thigpen & Cleckley ( 1954) 3. Billington, Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright (2007) 4. Veale&Riley(2001) • This approach can be useful in explaining differences between individuals in the cause of behaviours. These can be useful during, for example, therapy so the treatment can be tailored lo the individual rather than following general laws of behaviour. Findings from studies may have limited generalisability as they are focusing on the individual rather than a group or people. The people being studied may be unique in some way and therefore findings have limited use. This approach can be seen as being reductionist as it ignores the way we behave in groups and follow group laws or behaviour. The behaviourist perspective Behaviourist psychologists are interested in \vays in \vhich both humans and animals learn. They look into general la\vs that can apply to all species and ho\v the experiences \Ve have mould our behaviour over time. There are Lhree main areas \Vithin this perspective: ~ learning by the consequences of our behaviour (operant conditioning) ~ learning through association (classical conditioning) ~ learning through observation, imitation and modelling (social learning). Strict behaviourism follO\VS the idea that \Ve should "observe the observable" and not examine mental processes as they cannot be directly seen. Behaviours can be directly seen so we have objective measures of behaviour. Areas of interest include behaviour modification, therapies for mental health disorders or for prisoners, etc. and development of behaviours such as aggression. There are no nan1ed studies for this perspective but Bandura, Ross & Ross ( 1961 ) can be used as an exan1ple of social learning. The main research methods used in this perspective are laboratory experin1ents and observations. Strengths Weaknesses The perspective 1s very objective as 1t "observes the observable" - this means that data is scientific and quantitative and likely not to be biased. This makes f1nd1ngs from studies reliable. The approach is useful 1n terms or being able to help improve everyday life 1n humans by, for example, reducing phobias or modifying a child's behaviour for the better. Parts of this perspective ignore the role or social. cognitive and emotional aspects or behaviour. Therefore it can be seen as being reductionist in just focusing on observable aspects and 1gnonng internal mechanisms such as biology too. Some psychologists disagree that there are general laws that govern animal and human behaviour - humans are more complex than rats, pigeons, dogs and cats so generalising findings from animal research to humans may not be valid. The psychodynamic perspective Psychodynan1ic psychologists are interested in bow our early lives and our unconscious mind affect our behaviour. They look at the role of early childhood development and hO\V trau1nas that occur at various stages may affect adult personality. They also look at ho'v our unconscious mind (the part of the n1ind that \ VC are una\vare of) affects our everyday behaviour. We have structures of personality such as the id (driven by pleasure), tile ego (driven by reality) and the superego (driven by morality). AU of these have an influence on our behaviour. Areas of interest include development of • • mental health disorders (e.g. phobias), dreaming and the trcatn1ent of mental health disorders. There are no named studies for this perspective but Freud ( 1909) is a psychodynamic case study. The main research methods used in this perspective are case studies and intervie\vS. Strengths Weaknesses The approach is useful 1n terms of being able to help improve every day life in humans such as helping to understand why we have a mental health disorder and then helping to overcome it. Supporting evidence tends to come from case studies which are very detailed collecting qualitative data. This should improve the validity of findings as the whole person Is examined rather than Ideas such as those relaling to the unconscious mind cannot be directly tested and are therefore unscientific. How can you assess something that cannot be directly seen or manipulated? It is an abstract concept that might not even exist. Many findings from this perspective are based on case studies. just one aspect of them. These findings may be difficult to generalise to a larger group of people as the case studies may be unique in some way. ~~~ ..... ~ ~~~~~~~~ HOW PSYCHOLOGISTS RESEARCH There are 1nany different ways in \vhich psychologists can collect information for their study. These are called research n1ethods and it is up to psychologists to choose the one they think is the n1ost appropriate for their study. The 111ain ones are: experiments (laboratory and field) self-reports (questionnaires and interviews) case studies observations (naturalistic, controlled, participant). As \veil as choosing the most appropriate research nlethod, psychologists have to decide: \vho the participants are (the sample) and ho\v they are going to recruit (the san1pling technique) if they are using an experiment, \vhich design of study lo use (e.g. repeated measures, independent groups or matched pairs) v•bat the procedure of the study 1vill be for participants including what apparatus is needed the type of data they want to collect (e.g. quantitative or qualitative). RESEARCH METHODS These take place in a situation or environment that is artificial to participants in the study. There are nvo main types of variable that need to be considered when running any experiment: Tndependent variable (IV)- the variable that psychologists choose to manipulate or change. This represents the different conditions that are being compared in any study. So, for example, if a psychologist wants t.o investigate 1ne1nory in school children, then the variable that requires "changing" is age. Therefore, age is the IV. However, the IV requires some form of operationalisation. To do this, the psychologist must clearly define \vhat the different conditions are. For the example of memory in school children the operationalised lV could be: le,·el I = 5-6 years old and level 2 = 7- 8 years old. Depe11de11t variable (DV) - the variable that psychologists choose to measure. It is ahvays hoped that the IV is directly affecting the DV in an experi111ent. Also, the DV needs son1e form of operationalisation. To do this, psychologists must dearly define ho\v they will nieasure. For the example of men1ory in school children the operationalised DV could be the an1ount ofiten1s that a child remembers fron1 a tray of objects (n1axiJnum 25). The psychologist 1\!iJI atten1pt to control as many other variables as possible to try to ensure that it is the IV directly affecting the DV. There are different types of variable that can affect the DV that have to be controlled if possible. One of these is called participant variables. These are the traits and behaviours that participants bring to the study that may affect the DV (e.g. level of intelligence, prejudices or 11'-1 any previous experiences). .... • • • • • • Laboratory experiments have high levels of control and so can be replicated to test for reliability. As laboratory experiments lake place 1n an artificial setting, it is said that they can lack ecological validity. As laboratory experiments have high levels of control, researchers can be more confident 1l is Many laboratory experiments can make participants take part 1n tasks that are nothing like real-life ones so they lack what is known as ·mundane realism". the IV directly affecting the DV. FIELD EXPERIMENTS These are experin1enls that take place in participants' own natural environrnent rather than in an artificial laboratory. The researcher still tries to n1anipulate or change an JV while n1easuring the DV in an attempt to see ho\v the IV affects the DV. There is an attempt to control other variables that could affect the DV. One of these is called situational variables. These are variables from the setting that . Field might affect the OV, such as the \veatber or time of day. • As field experiments Situational variables can take place In a be difficult to control so realistic setting, it 1s sometimes 1t is difficult to said that they have know if it is lhe IV affecting ecological validity. the DV. It could be an As the participants uncontrolled variable causing will not know they the DV to change. are taking part in a As the participants will not study, there will be know they are taking part In few or no demand a study, there are issues with characteristics so breaking ethical guidelines behaviour is more including informed consent likely to be natural and deception. and valid. QUESTIONNAIRES When a study uses a questionnaire, it is asking participants to ans\ver a series of questions in the \VTitten forn1. There are various types of question that a psychologist can use in a questionnaire-based study: Quant Likert scales: these are statements that participants read and then stale \vhether they strongly agree, disagree, etc. For exa1nple, the statement might be "0\vning a pet is good for your psychological health~ Rating scales: these are questions or state1nents where participants give an ans1ver in the form of a nu1nber. For example: "On a scale of 0- J 0, ho1v happy are you today?" Open-ended: these are questions that allow participants to develop an answer and 1vrite it in their 01vn words. 111ey write sentences to ans1ver the question. For example: "Can you tell me about a happy childhood n1emory?" Closed: these are questions where there are a set amount of anS\vers and participants choose which ans1ver best fits hO\V they 1vant to respond. For example: "Pick the emotion that best describes ho1v you feel today: happy, sad, cheerful, moody''. Participants may be Participants may give more likely to reveal socially desirable truthful answers in a answers as they want questionnaire as it does to look good rather than not involve talking face giving truthful answers. lo face with someone. This lowers the validity A large sample of of findings. participants can answer If the questionnaire has the questionnaire a lot of closed questions in a short time. This then participants might should increase the be forced into choosing representativeness and an answer that does not generalisability of the reflect their true opinion. findings . INTERVIEWS These are similar to questionnaires but answers are in the spoken not \Vritten form. lntervie\vers ask a series of questions using the types listed above. They may record the intervie\V so they can go back and transcribe exactly \vhat participants said. Depending on \vhat the psychologist is studying, there are three main types of iJ1tervie\v: Structured: thi~ is when a set order of questions is used. Each participant \viii be asked the questions in that order. Semi-structured: there are certain questions that must be asked. Ho1vever, the intervie1ver can ask then1 in a different order and/or ask other questions to help clarify a participant's response. Unstructured: this is 1vhen the intervie1.ver has a theme or topic that needs to be discussed. The intervie1.ver may have an initial question Interview to begin the interview but each subsequent question is based on the response given by the participant. If the interview has a lot of open questions then participants will reveal more of the reasons why they behave 1n such a way or have a certain opinion Participants might be less likely to give truthful answers (maybe due to social desirability) as they are actually face to face with the interviewer and might not want to be judged negatively. CASE STUDIES This is not a "true" research 111ethod as it utilises other methods to collect the data. A case study examines Case a single person or a unit of people (e.g. a family) in depth. There may be so1nething unusual about the "case" (e.g. a trauma or a mental health issue). ·n1e psychologist \vill use questionnaires, intervie\.vs and observations to collect the data. m'{'i·iliB • As psychologists using case studies are focusing on one individual (or unit of individuals) they can collect rich, in-depth data that have details This makes the f1nd1ngs more valid. Participants are usually studied as part of their everyday life which means that the whole process tends lo have some ecological validity. • As psychologists using case studies are focusing on one 1nd1vidual (or unit or individuals), the case may be unique. This makes generalisations quite difficult. As these partic1 pants are studied in depth, an attachment could form between them and the psychologist which could reduce the objectivity of the data collection and analysis of data. This could reduce the validity or the findings. OBSERVATIONS This research method involves \Vatching and observing people or animals and their behaviours. There are many different types of observation, as highlighted belo"'· Ho1vever, some elements are core to observations in general. Prior to observing, the psychologist must create a belravioural clrecklist (calJed an etlrogra111 if observing non-humans). This checklist must name each behaviour that the psychologist is expecting see. Jn addition, a picture of the behaviour happening and a brief description of it is useful. This makes sure that if there is more than one observer, they are looking for the san1e behaviours. The behavioural checklist or ethogran1 nlust be "tested" before the main observation to ensure that all potential behaviours are covered tind the observers can use the checklist or ethogn1n1 successfully. 111is is called a piJot observation. Additional behaviours may be added to the checklist or ethogram after this process. These are observations that take place in a person's or anin1al's O\Vn natural environment. • • These are observations that take place in a controlled setting. An example could be in a laboratory roon1 '"ith the observers being behind a one-\vay mirror so they cannot be seen observing. . .. These are observations in \vhich psychologists become a part of the group they '"ish lo observe. This can be overt (the group of participants kno'" \vho the psychologist is and that they are being observed) or covert 1!11 (the group do not kno\v that a psychologist is ~ in the group observing 1hen1). If participants are unaware that they are being observed they should behave "naturally". This increases the ecological vahd1ty of the observation. As behaviours are ·counted" and are hence quantitative, the process 1s objective and the data can be analysed statistically with minimal bias. ' • ' I If participants are aware that they are being observed they may not act "naturally" and may show more socially desirable behaviours. This reduces the validity of the findings. It may be difficult to replicate a naturalistic study as many variables cannot be controlled. This reduces the reliability of the study. PARTICIPANTS AND SAMPLING Participants are the people who choose to take part in a study. The researcher nn1st decide on a target population (TP). This is the group of people that the psychologist \van ts to study in the hope that the findings can generalise to and be representative of that TP. For example, if a psychologist \Vants to investigate memory in school children then the TP might be children aged 5- 8 years old. There are different sanipling techniques that a psychologist can use to help recruit participants from the TP. The main ones are highlighted belo\v. • This technique involves researchers recruiting participants \vho happen to be around at the time they need participants. Once the correct number have been chosen and have con1pleted the study, no more participants are asked. Self-selected or i This technique involves researchers advertising for participants. It is frequently used in universities to recruit participants for a range of studies. Therefore. participants choose whether they \Vant to participate or not. This technique involves every participant in the TP having an equal chance of being chosen. If the TP is sn1all then potential participants can be numbered and chosen fro1n a hat. If the TP is large, all potential participants can be numbered but a random number generator can be used to select the sample. • - This technique involves recruiting a sample that is a mini version of the TP. Therefore, researchers recruit pa1ticipants fron1 each nlajor stratun1 in the TP (e.g. age groups, gender and ethnicity). Each stratun1 nlust reflect the Sample TP - for example, if the TP has 65 per cent fe1nales then the san1ple should be 65 per cent female. v\lhen evaluating these techniques 1ve can split them into representative sa111pling and non- representative san1pling. Rane.lorn and stratified san1pling are representative \Vhereas opportunity and self-selected or volunteer san1pling are non- representative . • • The researcher can generalise to the TP with more confidence. This is because the sample is more likely to be representative of the TP. Large numbers of participants can be obtained relatively quickly and easily. People are more likely to participate if they have already volunteered so the drop-out rate should be lower. • Obta1n1ng details of the TP to use to select the sample may be difficult (e.g. lists of people in the TP or proportions of each stratum). Researchers cannot guarantee a representative sample (as with random sampling) - for instance, alt those chosen could be of one gender - and with both techniques researchers may have a "perfect" sample but participants still might not take part. Researchers are unlikely to gain a wide variety of participants to allow for generalisation (for opportunity sampling they wilt go for one type or person in the main whereas for volunteer sampling only a certain type of person \Viii volunteer for a particular study). DESIGN OF STUDY (EXPERIMENTAL OR PARTICIPANT DESIGN) ff psychologists choose to use an experiment, then they have to decide on an e..xperimental (participant) design. This refers to ho\v you allocate your participants to the varying conditions of your experiment. There are three different designs . Design - This is \Vhen a participant only takes part in one level of the IV. lf the IV is naturally occurr ing (e.g. gender) then an experin1enter 11111st use this type of design. Other examples of naturally occurring IVs are gender and age. In a true independent groups design, participants are randornly allocated to one level of the IV (so they get an equal chance of being placed in any level of your IV). As participants only take part in one condition they are less likely to guess the aim of the study therefore reducing the potential effects of demand characteristics. As participants only take part in one condition there are no order effects that can reduce the validity of findings. t There may be a problem with participant variables affecting the DV rather than the IV - even by chance, all people of a certain personality might form one condition and all people with a different personality might form the other condition - it could be personality affecting the DV rather than the IV. More participants are required for this type of design compared to repeated measures. This is when a participant takes part in nil of t he levels of the JV. This can 110/ be used if the IV is naturally occurring (e.g. you cannot be a male and a fe111ale at the same ti1ne!). Researchers musl use co1111terbala11cing, which is sometin1es called an ABBA design. For example, 50 per cent of participants do level A then level B of the IV and the other 50 per cent do level B then A. •