P S Y C H O L O G Y E I G H T H E D I T I O N Douglas A. Bernstein University of South Florida University of Southampton Louis A. Penner Wayne State University University of Michigan Alison Clarke-Stewart University of California, Irvine Edward J. Roy University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Houghton Mifflin Company Boston New York To the researchers, past and present, whose work embodies psychology today, and to the students who will follow in their footsteps to shape the psychology of tomorrow. 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Library of Congress Control Number: 2007933487 ISBN 10: 0-618-87407-0 ISBN 13: 978-0-618-87407-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9-DOW-11 10 09 08 07 BRIEF CONTENTS PREFACE xiii 1 Introducing Psychology 1 2 Research in Psychology 27 3 Biological Aspects of Psychology 58 4 Sensation 106 5 Perception 152 6 Learning 193 7 Memory 236 8 Cognition and Language 279 9 Consciousness 325 1 10 Cognitive Abilities 365 11 Motivation and Emotion 403 12 Human Development 456 13 Health, Stress, and Coping 516 14 Personality 550 15 Psychological Disorders 587 16 Treatment of Psychological Disorders 643 17 Social Cognition 688 18 Social Influence 721 APPENDIX A: Behavioral Genetics (This appendix is available online on the student web site.) A-1 APPENDIX B: Statistics in Psychological Research (This appendix is available online on the student web site.) A-10 REFERENCES R-1 CREDITS C-1 NAME INDEX NI-1 SUBJECT INDEX/GLOSSARY SIG-1 iii This page intentionally left blank CONTENTS PREFACE xiii Synapses and Communication Between Neurons 64 Organization and Functions of the Nervous System 66 The Peripheral Nervous System: Keeping in Touch with the World 67 1 Introducing Psychology 1 The Somatic Nervous System 67 The Autonomic Nervous System 68 The World of Psychology: An Overview 3 The Central Nervous System: Subfields of Psychology 3 Making Sense of the World 69 Linkages Within Psychology and Beyond 9 The Spinal Cord 70 Research: The Foundation of Psychology 10 The Brain 71 A Brief History of Psychology 13 ■ THINKING CRITICALLY: What Can fMRI Tell Us About Behavior Approaches to the Science of Psychology 17 and Mental Processes? 73 The Biological Approach 18 ■ FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Manipulating Genes in The Evolutionary Approach 18 Animal Models of Human Disease 81 The Psychodynamic Approach 19 The Cerebral Cortex 83 The Behavioral Approach 19 The Divided Brain in a Unified Self 87 The Cognitive Approach 20 Plasticity in the Central Nervous System 90 The Humanistic Approach 20 ■ LINKAGES: Human Development and the Changing Brain 93 Human Diversity and Psychology 21 The Chemistry of Psychology 95 SUMMARY 25 Three Classes of Neurotransmitters 96 The Endocrine System: Coordinating the Internal World 99 The Immune System: Defending the Body 102 2 Research in Psychology 27 LINKAGES 104 • SUMMARY 104 Thinking Critically About Psychology (or Anything Else) 29 Critical Thinking and Scientific Research 31 4 Sensation 106 The Role of Theories 33 Research Methods in Psychology 34 Naturalistic Observation: Watching Behavior 34 Sensory Systems 108 Case Studies: Taking a Closer Look 35 The Problem of Coding 109 Surveys: Looking at the Big Picture 37 ■ LINKAGES: Sensation and Biological Aspects of Psychology 110 Correlational Studies: Looking for Relationships 38 Experiments: Exploring Cause and Effect 40 Hearing 111 Selecting Human Participants for Research 44 Sound 111 The Ear 113 ■ LINKAGES: Psychological Research Methods Auditory Pathways, Representations, and Experiences 115 and Behavioral Genetics 46 Coding Intensity and Frequency 116 Statistical Analysis of Research Results 49 Vision 118 Descriptive Statistics 49 Light 119 Inferential Statistics 52 Focusing Light 119 Statistics and Research Methods as Tools in Critical Thinking 54 Converting Light into Images 121 Ethical Guidelines for Psychologists 55 Visual Pathways 124 LINKAGES 56 • SUMMARY 57 Visual Representations 125 Seeing Color 127 Interaction of the Senses: Synesthesia 132 Biological Aspects The Chemical Senses: Smell and Taste 133 Olfaction 133 3 of Psychology 58 Gustation 136 Smell, Taste, and Flavor 137 The Nervous System 61 Somatic Senses and the Vestibular System 139 Cells of the Nervous System 61 Touch and Temperature 139 Action Potentials 62 Pain 141 v vi ● Contents ■ THINKING CRITICALLY: Does Acupuncture Relieve Pain? 144 Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination 199 Proprioception: Sensing Body Position 146 The Signaling of Significant Events 200 Some Applications of Classical Conditioning 203 ■ FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: The Case of the Mysterious Spells 148 Operant Conditioning: Learning the Consequences of Behavior 205 LINKAGES 149 • SUMMARY 149 From the Puzzle Box to the Skinner Box 205 Basic Components of Operant Conditioning 206 Forming and Strengthening Operant Behavior 210 Why Reinforcers Work 214 5 Perception 152 Punishment 215 Some Applications of Operant Conditioning 217 ■ LINKAGES: Neural Networks and Learning 219 The Perception Paradox 153 Cognitive Processes in Learning 220 Three Approaches to Perception 154 Learned Helplessness 221 Psychophysics 155 ■ FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: An Experiment on Human Absolute Thresholds: Is Something Out There? 155 Helplessness 221 ■ THINKING CRITICALLY: Can Subliminal Stimuli Influence Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps 223 Your Behavior? 157 Insight and Learning 224 Signal-Detection Theory 158 Observational Learning: Learning by Imitation 225 Judging Differences: Has Anything Changed? 161 ■ THINKING CRITICALLY: Does Watching Violence on Television Magnitude Estimation: How Intense Is That? 161 Make People More Violent? 227 Organizing the Perceptual World 163 Using Research on Learning to Help People Learn 230 Basic Processes in Perceptual Organization 163 Classrooms Across Cultures 230 Perception of Location and Distance 165 Perception of Motion 169 Active Learning 231 Perceptual Constancy 171 Skill Learning 232 LINKAGES 233 • SUMMARY 233 Recognizing the Perceptual World 174 Bottom-Up Processing 174 Top-Down Processing 176 Network Processing 177 Culture, Experience, and Perception 179 ■ LINKAGES: Perception and Human Development 180 7 Memory 236 Attention 181 ■ FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: An Experiment The Nature of Memory 237 in “Mind Reading” 182 Basic Memory Processes 237 Directing Attention 184 Types of Memory 238 Ignoring Information 184 Explicit and Implicit Memory 239 Divided Attention 185 ■ FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Measuring Explicit Versus Attention and Automatic Processing 186 Implicit Memory 240 Attention and the Brain 187 Models of Memory 241 Applications of Research on Perception 187 Storing New Memories 245 Aviation Psychology 187 Sensory Memory 245 Human-Computer Interaction 188 Short-Term Memory and Working Memory 245 Traffic Safety 189 Long-Term Memory 248 LINKAGES 190 • SUMMARY 190 Distinguishing Between Short-Term and Long-Term Memory 251 Retrieving Memories 252 Retrieval Cues and Encoding Specificity 252 Context and State Dependence 252 6 Learning 193 Retrieval from Semantic Memory 253 Constructing Memories 256 ■ LINKAGES: Memory, Perception, and Eyewitness Testimony 259 Learning About Stimuli 195 Forgetting 261 Classical Conditioning: Learning Signals and How Do We Forget? 261 Associations 197 Why Do We Forget? The Roles of Decay and Interference 262 Pavlov’s Discovery 197 Conditioned Responses over Time: Extinction and ■ THINKING CRITICALLY: Can Traumatic Memories Be Repressed, Spontaneous Recovery 198 Then Recovered? 264 Contents ● vii Biological Bases of Memory 268 The Neuropsychology of Consciousness 333 The Biochemistry of Memory 269 States of Consciousness 334 Brain Structures and Memory 270 Sleeping and Dreaming 336 Applications of Memory Research 273 Stages of Sleep 336 Improving Your Memory 273 Sleep Disorders 338 Design for Memory 276 Why Do People Sleep? 341 LINKAGES 277 • SUMMARY 277 Dreams and Dreaming 344 Hypnosis 346 Experiencing Hypnosis 346 Cognition and Explaining Hypnosis 347 Applications of Hypnosis 349 8 Language 279 ■ LINKAGES: Meditation, Health, and Stress 349 Psychoactive Drugs 350 Basic Functions of Thought 280 Psychopharmacology 351 The Circle of Thought 281 The Varying Effects of Drugs 351 Measuring Information Processing 282 Depressants 353 Mental Representations: Stimulants 355 The Ingredients of Thought 284 Opiates 358 Concepts 285 Hallucinogens 358 Propositions 287 Schemas, Scripts, and Mental Models 287 ■ THINKING CRITICALLY: Is Marijuana Dangerous? 360 Images and Cognitive Maps 288 LINKAGES 362 • SUMMARY 363 Thinking Strategies 289 Formal Reasoning 290 Informal Reasoning 292 Problem Solving 295 Strategies for Problem Solving 295 10 Cognitive Abilities 365 ■ FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Locating Analogical Thinking 296 Testing for Intelligence 367 Obstacles to Problem Solving 298 A Brief History of Intelligence Tests 367 Building Problem-Solving Skills 301 Intelligence Tests Today 369 Problem Solving by Computer 302 Aptitude and Achievement Tests 371 Decision Making 304 Measuring the Quality of Tests 372 Evaluating Options 304 Reliability 372 Biases and Flaws in Decision Making 306 Validity 373 ■ LINKAGES: Group Processes in Problem Solving Evaluating Intelligence Tests 374 and Decision Making 307 The Reliability and Validity of Intelligence Tests 374 Language 309 ■ LINKAGES: Emotionality and the Measurement The Elements of Language 309 of Cognitive Abilities 376 Understanding Speech 312 The Development of Language 313 IQ Scores as a Measure of Innate Ability 377 How Is Language Acquired? 315 Group Differences in IQ Scores 379 Conditions That Can Raise IQ Scores 382 ■ THINKING CRITICALLY: Can Nonhumans Use Language? 317 IQ Scores in the Classroom 382 Culture, Language, and Thought 320 ■ THINKING CRITICALLY: Are Intelligence Tests Unfairly Biased LINKAGES 322 • SUMMARY 322 Against Certain Groups? 384 Understanding Intelligence 387 The Psychometric Approach 387 The Information-Processing Approach 388 9 Consciousness 325 The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence 389 Multiple Intelligences 391 ■ FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Tracking Cognitive Abilities Analyzing Consciousness 327 over the Life Span 393 Some Functions of Consciousness 328 Levels of Consciousness 328 Diversity in Cognitive Abilities 395 Mental Processing Without Awareness 329 Creativity 395 ■ FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Unusual Cognitive Ability 397 Subliminal Messages in Rock Music 331 LINKAGES 400 • SUMMARY 400 viii ● Contents The Development of Knowledge: Piaget’s Theory 464 Motivation and ■ FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: 11 Emotion 403 Experiments on Developing Minds 468 Modifying Piaget’s Theory 472 Information Processing During Childhood 473 Concepts and Theories of Motivation 404 ■ LINKAGES: Development and Memory 474 Sources of Motivation 405 Instinct Theory and Its Descendants 406 Culture and Cognitive Development 475 Drive Reduction Theory 408 Improving or Endangering Cognitive Development 477 Optimal Arousal Theory 409 Infancy and Childhood: Social and Emotional Incentive Theory 410 Development 479 Hunger and Eating 411 Individual Temperament 479 Biological Signals for Hunger and Satiety 412 The Infant Grows Attached 481 Hunger and the Brain 413 ■ THINKING CRITICALLY: Does Day Care Harm the Emotional Flavor, Cultural Learning, and Food Selection 414 Development of Infants? 483 Eating Disorders 416 Relationships with Parents 484 Sexual Behavior 419 Peer Friendships and Popularity 487 ■ FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: A Survey of Human Sexual Social Skills and Understanding 489 Behavior 420 Gender Roles 490 Risk and Resilience 493 The Biology of Sex 421 Social and Cultural Factors in Sexuality 423 Adolescence 494 Sexual Orientation 424 Changes in Body, Brain, and Thinking 494 ■ THINKING CRITICALLY: What Shapes Sexual Orientation? 424 Adolescent Feelings and Behavior 495 Identity and Development of the Self 498 Sexual Dysfunctions 427 Moral Reasoning 499 Achievement Motivation 428 Emerging Adulthood 501 Need for Achievement 428 Adulthood 503 Goal Setting and Achievement Motivation 430 Physical Changes 503 Achievement and Success in the Workplace 431 Cognitive Changes 503 Achievement and Subjective Well-Being 432 Social Changes 507 Relations and Conflicts Among Motives 433 Death and Dying 511 ■ LINKAGES: Conflicting Motives and Stress 435 Developmental Trajectories 512 Opponent Processes, Motivation, and Emotion 436 Longevity: The Length of Life 512 The Nature of Emotion 436 LINKAGES 513 • SUMMARY 513 Defining Characteristics 436 The Biology of Emotion 438 Theories of Emotion 441 Health, Stress, James’s Peripheral Theory 441 13 and Coping 516 Cannon’s Central Theory 445 Cognitive Theories 446 Communicating Emotion 449 Health Psychology 517 Innate Expressions of Emotion 449 Stress and Stressors 519 Social and Cultural Influences on Emotional Expression 451 Psychological Stressors 519 LINKAGES 453 • SUMMARY 453 Measuring Stressors 520 Stress Responses 522 Physical Responses 522 Psychological Responses 524 ■ LINKAGES: Stress and Psychological Disorders 527 12 Human Development 456 Stress Mediators: Interactions Between People and Stressors 528 Exploring Human Development 457 How Stressors Are Perceived 529 Beginnings 460 Predictability and Control 529 Prenatal Development 460 Coping Resources and Coping Methods 530 The Newborn 462 Social Support 531 Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development 464 Stress, Personality, and Gender 533 Changes in the Brain 464 ■ FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Personality and Health 534 Contents ● ix The Physiology and Psychology of Health Explaining Psychological Disorders 591 and Illness 537 The Biopsychosocial Model 592 Stress, Illness, and the Immune System 537 Diathesis-Stress as an Integrative Explanation 595 Stress, Illness, and the Cardiovascular System 539 Classifying Psychological Disorders 596 ■ THINKING CRITICALLY: Does Hostility Increase the Risk A Classification System: DSM-IV 597 of Heart Disease? 540 Evaluating the Diagnostic System 599 Risking Your Life: Health-Endangering Behaviors 542 ■ THINKING CRITICALLY: Is Psychological Diagnosis Biased? 600 Promoting Healthy Behavior 542 Anxiety Disorders 603 Health Beliefs and Health Behaviors 543 Types of Anxiety Disorders 603 Changing Health Behaviors: Stages of Readiness 544 Causes of Anxiety Disorders 606 Programs for Coping with Stress and Promoting Health 545 ■ LINKAGES: Anxiety Disorders and Learning 608 LINKAGES 547 • SUMMARY 548 Somatoform Disorders 610 Dissociative Disorders 611 Mood Disorders 614 Depressive Disorders 614 14 Personality 550 Bipolar Disorders 617 Causes of Mood Disorders 618 Schizophrenia 621 The Psychodynamic Approach 552 Symptoms of Schizophrenia 622 The Structure and Development of Personality 553 Categorizing Schizophrenia 624 Variations on Freud’s Personality Theory 555 Causes of Schizophrenia 625 Contemporary Psychodynamic Theories 556 Personality Disorders 628 Evaluating the Psychodynamic Approach 557 ■ FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Exploring Links Between Child The Trait Approach 558 Abuse and Antisocial Personality Disorder 631 Allport’s Trait Theory 559 The Big-Five Model of Personality 560 A Sampling of Other Psychological Disorders 633 Psychological Disorders of Childhood 633 Biological Trait Theories 561 Substance-Related Disorders 635 ■ THINKING CRITICALLY: Are Personality Traits Inherited? 563 Mental Illness and the Law 638 Evaluating the Trait Approach 566 LINKAGES 640 • SUMMARY 641 The Social-Cognitive Approach 567 Roots of the Social-Cognitive Approach 567 Prominent Social-Cognitive Theories 567 Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Approach 570 Treatment of The Humanistic Approach 571 16 Psychological Disorders 643 Prominent Humanistic Theories 572 Evaluating the Humanistic Approach 574 Basic Features of Treatment 644 ■ LINKAGES: Personality, Culture, and Human Development 576 Psychodynamic Psychotherapy 646 Classical Psychoanalysis 646 ■ FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Longitudinal Studies of Contemporary Variations on Psychoanalysis 648 Temperament and Personality 578 Humanistic Psychotherapy 650 Assessing Personality 579 Client-Centered Therapy 650 Objective Personality Tests 580 Gestalt Therapy 652 Projective Personality Tests 582 Personality Tests and Employee Selection 583 Behavior Therapy 653 Techniques for Modifying Behavior 654 LINKAGES 584 • SUMMARY 585 Cognitive-Behavior Therapy 658 Group, Family, and Couples Therapy 661 Group Therapy 661 Family and Couples Therapy 662 15 Psychological Disorders 587 Evaluating Psychotherapy 664 ■ THINKING CRITICALLY: Are All Forms of Defining Psychological Disorders 589 Therapy Equally Effective? 665 What Is Abnormal? 590 ■ FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Which Therapies Behavior in Context: A Practical Approach 590 Work Best for Which Problems? 668