Psychology Fifth edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli Gulf Coast State College J. Noland White Georgia College & State University 330 Hudson Street, NY NY 10013 A01_CICC7961_05_SE_FM.indd 1 9/3/16 12:24 AM Brief Contents Psychology in Action Secrets for Surviving College and Improving Your Grades PIA-2 1 The Science of Psychology 2 2 The Biological Perspective 44 3 Sensation and Perception 92 4 Consciousness 136 5 Learning 176 6 Memory 222 7 Cognition: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language 266 8 Development across the Life Span 310 9 Motivation and Emotion 354 10 Sexuality and Gender 390 11 Stress and Health 420 12 Social Psychology 458 13 Theories of Personality 504 14 Psychological Disorders 542 15 Psychological Therapies 586 Appendix A Statistics in Psychology A-1 Appendix B Applied Psychology and Psychology Careers B-1 iii A01_CICC7961_05_SE_FM.indd 3 9/3/16 12:24 AM Contents Preface ix Generating the Message within the Neuron: The Neural Impulse 48 About the Authors xx Neurotransmission 50 Psychology in Action An Overview of the Nervous System 55 Secrets for Surviving The Central Nervous System: The “Central Processing Unit” 56 College and Improving Your Grades PIA-2 The Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves on the Edge 59 Study Skills PIA-4 Distant Connections: The Endocrine Glands 63 Managing Time PIA-5 The Pituitary: Master of the Hormonal Universe 64 Reading the Text: Textbooks Are Not Meatloaf PIA-7 Other Endocrine Glands 65 Getting the Most Out of Lectures PIA-10 Looking Inside the Living Brain 67 Studying for Exams: Cramming Is Not an Option PIA-11 Methods for Studying Specific Regions of the Brain 67 Improving Your Memory PIA-15 Neuroimaging Techniques 68 Writing Papers PIA-17 From the Bottom Up: The Structures of the Brain 73 Your Ethical Responsibility as a Student PIA-19 The Hindbrain 73 Psychology in Action Summary PIA-20 Structures Under the Cortex: The Limbic System 75 Test Yourself 1 The Cortex 77 The Association Areas of the Cortex 80 1 The Science of Psychology 2 Classic Studies in Psychology: Through the Looking Glass—Spatial Neglect 81 The History of Psychology 4 The Cerebral Hemispheres: Are You in Your In the Beginning: Wundt, Titchener, and James 5 Right Mind? 82 Three Influential Approaches: Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and APA Goal 2: Scientific Reasoning and Critical Thinking: Behaviorism 7 Phineas Gage and Neuroplasticity 85 The Field of Psychology Today 11 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Paying Attention to Modern Perspectives 11 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 87 Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization 15 Chapter Summary 88 Scientific Research 18 Test Yourself 91 The Scientific Approach 18 3 Sensation and Perception 92 Descriptive Methods 23 Correlations: Finding Relationships 26 The ABCs of Sensation 94 The Experiment 28 Transduction 94 Experimental Hazards and Controlling for Effects 31 Sensory Thresholds 94 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Habituation and Sensory Adaptation 96 A Sample Experiment 34 The Science of Seeing 97 Ethics of Psychological Research 35 Light and the Eye 97 The Guidelines for Doing Research with People 35 The Visual Pathway 101 Animal Research 37 Perception of Color 102 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Thinking Critically The Hearing Sense: Can You Hear Me Now? 107 About Critical Thinking 38 Sound Waves and the Ear 107 Chapter Summary 41 Perceiving Pitch 109 Test Yourself 42 Types of Hearing Impairments 110 2 Chemical Senses: It Tastes Good and Smells Even Better 111 The Biological Perspective 44 Gustation: How We Taste the World 112 Neurons and Nerves: Building the Network 46 The Sense of Scents: Olfaction 114 Structure of the Neuron: The Nervous The Other Senses: What the Body Knows 116 System’s Building Block 46 Somesthetic Senses 116 iv A01_CICC7961_05_SE_FM.indd 4 9/3/16 12:24 AM Contents vv Body Movement and Position 118 The Role of Punishment in Operant Conditioning 196 The ABCs of Perception 120 Other Aspects of Operant Conditioning 200 How We Organize Our Perceptions 120 Applications of Operant Conditioning: Shaping and Behavior Modification 201 Depth Perception 123 Perceptual Illusions 125 Classic Studies in Psychology: Biological Constraints on Operant Conditioning 202 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Perceptual Influences on Metacognition 130 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Spare the Rod, Spoil the Child? 207 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Beyond “Smoke and Mirrors”—The Psychological Science and Neuroscience Cognitive Learning Theory 208 of Magic 131 Tolman’s Maze-Running Rats: Latent Learning 208 Chapter Summary 132 Köhler’s Smart Chimp: Insight Learning 209 Seligman’s Depressed Dogs: Learned Helplessness 210 Test Yourself 134 Observational Learning 213 4 Consciousness 136 Bandura and the Bobo Doll 213 The Four Elements of Observational Learning 215 What Is Consciousness? 138 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Can You Really Definition of Consciousness 138 Toilet Train Your Cat? 216 Altered States of Consciousness 138 Chapter Summary 218 Sleep 140 Test Yourself 220 The Biology of Sleep 140 Why We Sleep 142 6 Memory 222 The Stages of Sleep 145 Sleep Disorders 148 What Is Memory? 224 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Three Processes of Memory 224 Weight Gain and Sleep 153 Models of Memory 224 Dreams 154 The Information-Processing Model: Three Memory Why Do We Dream? 154 Systems 227 What Do People Dream About? 156 Sensory Memory: Why Do People Do Double Takes? 227 Hypnosis 158 Classic Studies in Psychology: Sperling’s Iconic How Hypnosis Works 158 Memory Test 228 Theories of Hypnosis 159 Short-Term Memory 230 The Influence of Psychoactive Drugs 161 Long-Term Memory 233 Dependence 161 Getting It Out: Retrieval of Long-Term Memories 239 Stimulants: Up, Up, and Away 163 Retrieval Cues 239 Down in the Valley: Depressants 166 Recall and Recognition 241 Hallucinogens: Higher and Higher 168 Classic Studies in Psychology: Elizabeth Loftus and Eyewitnesses 244 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Thinking Critically About Ghosts, Aliens, and Other Things That Go Bump in Automatic Encoding: Flashbulb Memories 244 the Night 172 The Reconstructive Nature of Long-Term Memory Retrieval: How Reliable Are Memories? 245 Chapter Summary 173 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Test Yourself 174 Effects of Supplements on Memory 249 5 Learning 176 What Were We Talking About? Forgetting 251 Ebbinghaus and the Forgetting Curve 252 Definition of Learning 178 Reasons We Forget 253 It Makes Your Mouth Water: Classical Conditioning 178 Neuroscience of Memory 255 Pavlov and the Salivating Dogs 178 The Biological Bases of Memory 255 Classical Conditioning Applied to Human Behavior 184 When Memory Fails: Organic Amnesia 257 What’s In It for Me? Operant Conditioning 188 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Health The Contributions of Thorndike and Skinner 188 and Memory 260 The Concept of Reinforcement 189 Chapter Summary 262 Schedules of Reinforcement: Why the One-Armed Test Yourself 263 Bandit Is So Seductive 192 A01_CICC7961_05_SE_FM.indd 5 9/3/16 12:24 AM vi Contents 7 Cognitive Development 344 Cognition: Thinking, Intelligence, and Psychosocial Development 344 Language 266 Theories of Physical and Psychological Aging 346 How People Think 268 Stages of Death and Dying 347 Mental Imagery 268 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Cross-Cultural Concepts and Prototypes 269 Views on Death 349 Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Strategies 271 Chapter Summary 350 Problems with Problem Solving and Decision Making 274 Test Yourself 353 Creativity 275 9 Intelligence 278 Motivation and Emotion 354 Theories of Intelligence 278 Approaches to Understanding Motivation 356 Measuring Intelligence 282 Defining Motivation 356 Test Construction: Good Test, Bad Test? 284 Early Approaches to Understanding Motivation 357 Individual Differences in Intelligence 288 Different Strokes for Different Folks: Psychological Classic Studies in Psychology: Terman’s “Termites” 291 Needs 359 The Nature/Nurture Issue Regarding Intelligence 293 Arousal and Incentive Approaches 360 Language 298 Humanistic Approaches 363 The Levels of Language Analysis 298 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Development of Language 299 Thinking: Cultural Differences in the Use of Praise The Relationship between Language and Thought 300 as a Motivator 367 Animal Studies in Language 302 What, Hungry Again? Why People Eat 368 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Physiological and Social Components of Hunger 368 A Cognitive Advantage for Bilingual Individuals? 304 Obesity 371 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Mental and Emotion 373 Physical Exercises for Better Cognitive Health 305 The Three Elements of Emotion 373 Chapter Summary 307 Early Theories of Emotion 378 Test Yourself 308 Cognitive Theories of Emotion 381 Classic Studies in Psychology: The Angry/Happy Man 381 8 Development across the Life Span 310 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: When Motiva- tion Is Not Enough 386 Studying Human Development 312 Research Designs 312 Chapter Summary 387 Nature and Nurture 312 Test Yourself 389 The Basic Building Blocks of Development 314 10 Sexuality and Gender 390 Prenatal Development 318 Fertilization 318 The Physical Side of Human Sexuality 392 Three Stages of Development 319 The Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics 392 Infancy and Childhood Development 322 The Development of Sex Characteristics 393 Physical Development 322 The Psychological Side of Human Sexuality: Gender 395 Classic Studies in Psychology: The Visual Cliff 325 Gender Identity 395 Cognitive Development 326 Gender-Role Development 399 Psychosocial Development 331 Gender Differences 402 Classic Studies in Psychology: Harlow and Contact Human Sexual Behavior 404 Comfort 333 Sexual Response 404 APA Goal 2: Scientific Reasoning and Critical Thinking: Classic Studies in Psychology: Masters and The Facts About Immunizations 337 Johnson’s Observational Study of the Human Adolescence 338 Sexual Response 405 Physical Development 338 Different Types of Sexual Behavior 406 Cognitive Development 339 Sexual Orientation 409 Psychosocial Development 340 APA Goal 2: Scientific Reasoning and Critical Thinking 413 Adulthood and Aging 342 Sexual Health 414 Physical Development: Use It or Lose It 342 Sexually Transmitted Infections 414 A01_CICC7961_05_SE_FM.indd 6 9/3/16 12:24 AM Contents vii Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: The AIDS Aggression 490 Epidemic in Russia 417 Prosocial Behavior 494 Chapter Summary 417 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Peeking Inside the Test Yourself 419 Social Brain 499 Chapter Summary 500 11 Stress and Health 420 Test Yourself 502 Stress and Stressors 422 13 Theories of Personality 504 The Relationship between Stress and Stressors 422 Environmental Stressors: Life’s Ups and Downs 423 Psychodynamic Perspectives 506 Psychological Stressors: What, Me Worry? 427 Freud’s Conception of Personality 506 Physiological Factors: Stress and Health 432 Stages of Personality Development 509 The General Adaptation Syndrome 432 The Neo-Freudians 511 The Immune System and Stress 433 Current Thoughts on Freud and the Health Psychology 437 Psychodynamic Perspective 512 Cognitive Factors in Stress 438 The Behavioral and Social Cognitive View of Personality 515 Personality Factors in Stress 440 Learning Theories 515 Social and Cultural Factors in Stress: People Current Thoughts on the Behavioral and Who Need People 443 Social Cognitive Learning Views 517 APA Goal 2: Scientific Reasoning and Critical Thinking: The Third Force: Humanism and Personality 518 Homeopathy: An Illusion of Healing 447 Carl Rogers and the Humanistic Perspective 518 Coping with Stress 448 Current Thoughts on the Humanistic View of Personality 520 Coping Strategies 449 Trait Theories: Who Are You? 521 How Social Support Affects Coping 451 Allport and Cattell: Early Attempts to List How Culture Affects Coping 452 and Describe Traits 521 How Religion Affects Coping 452 Modern Trait Theories: The Big Five 523 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Coping with Stress Current Thoughts on the Trait Perspective 524 Through Mindfulness Meditation 454 Personality: Genetics and Culture 526 Chapter Summary 455 The Biology of Personality: Behavioral Genetics 526 Current Findings on the Heritability of Personality 528 Test Yourself 456 Classic Studies in Psychology: Geert Hofstede’s Four 12 Social Psychology 458 Dimensions of Cultural Personality 528 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Social Influence 460 Personality, Family, and Culture 530 Conformity 460 Assessment of Personality 531 Group Behavior 462 Interviews, Behavioral Assessments, and Compliance 464 Personality Inventories 531 Obedience 466 Projective Tests 535 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Cults Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Biological Bases and the Failure of Critical Thinking 470 of Personality 537 Social Cognition 471 Chapter Summary 539 Attitudes 471 Test Yourself 541 Attitude Change: The Art of Persuasion 474 Cognitive Dissonance: When Attitudes and Behavior Clash 475 14 Psychological Disorders 542 Impression Formation 477 Attribution 478 What Is Abnormality? 544 Social Interaction 482 Changing Conceptions of Abnormality 544 Prejudice and Discrimination 482 Models of Abnormality 546 How People Learn and Overcome Prejudice 484 Diagnosing and Classifying Disorders 548 Disorders of Anxiety, Trauma, and Stress: What, Me Worry? 553 Classic Studies in Psychology: Brown Eyes, Blue Eyes 484 Anxiety Disorders 553 Interpersonal Attraction 487 Other Disorders Related to Anxiety 555 Love Is a Triangle—Robert Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love 489 Causes of Anxiety, Trauma, and Stress Disorders 557 A01_CICC7961_05_SE_FM.indd 7 9/3/16 12:24 AM viii Contents Dissociative Disorders: Altered Identities 560 Behavior Therapies: Learning One’s Way Types of Dissociative Disorders 560 To Better Behavior 596 Causes of Dissociative Disorders 561 Cognitive Therapies: Thinking Is Believing 601 Disorders of Mood: The Effect of Affect 563 Group Therapies: Not Just for the Shy 605 Major Depressive Disorder and Bipolar Disorders 563 Types of Group Therapies 605 Causes of Disordered Mood 565 Evaluation of Group Therapy 606 Eating Disorders and Sexual Dysfunction 567 Does Psychotherapy Really Work? 607 Eating Disorders 567 Studies of Effectiveness 608 Sexual Dysfunctions and Problems 570 Characteristics of Effective Therapy 609 Schizophrenia: Altered Reality 572 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Does It Work? Psychological Treatment 613 Symptoms of Schizophrenia 572 Causes of Schizophrenia 574 Biomedical Therapies 615 Personality Disorders: I’m Okay, It’s Everyone Psychopharmacology 615 Else Who’s Weird 577 Ect and Psychosurgery 619 Categories of Personality Disorders 577 Emerging Techniques 621 Causes of Personality Disorders 578 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Virtual Reality Therapies 623 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Learning More: Psychological Disorders 579 Chapter Summary 624 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Taking the Test Yourself 626 Worry Out of Exams 580 Chapter Summary 582 Appendix A Statistics in Psychology A-1 Test Yourself 584 Appendix B Applied Psychology 15 Psychological Therapies 586 and Psychology Careers B-1 Treatment of Psychological Disorders: Past to Present 588 Glossary G-1 Insight Therapies: Psychodynamic and References R-1 Humanistic Approaches 590 Credits C-1 Psychotherapy Begins: Freud’s Psychoanalysis 590 Humanistic Therapy: To Err Is Human 592 Name Index NI-1 Action Therapies: Behavior Therapies and Subject Index SI-1 Cognitive Therapies 596 A01_CICC7961_05_SE_FM.indd 8 9/3/16 12:24 AM Preface ix Learner-Centered Approach Curiosity and Dialogue Our goal is to awaken students’ curiosity and energize their desire to learn by having them read and engage with the material. In the last edition, we extended that experience with the new REVEL format. Fully digital and highly engaging, REVEL offers an immersive learning experience designed for the way today’s students read, think, and learn. Enlivening course content with media interactives and assessments, REVEL empowers educators to increase engagement with the course and to better connect with students. See pearsonhighered.com/revel. The fifth edition builds upon the REVEL experience. This edition was written with digital learning materials clearly in mind. With the dynamic learning aids of previous editions as a foundation, the digital materials are interactive, allowing students to experience figures, graphs, and tables in an active learning process. Instead of simply looking and reading, the student is doing things with the digital materials. This format will truly help stu- dents engage in the learning process and will also help instructors make classroom presentations more vivid and attention grabbing. Chapter-Opening Journal Prompts and 5 Student Voice Videos Learning Chapters open with videos in which psychology students share personal stories THINKING CRITICALLY about how the chapter theme directly How have you used the promise of a pleasurable consequence or reward to modify your own behavior or the behavior of others? After you have answered the question, watch the video to compare the answers of other students to yours. applies to their lives. For the fifth edition, The response entered here will be saved to your notes and may be collected by your instructor if he/she requires it. we’ve added the ability for students to answer these questions for themselves before watching the video responses. CC Watch the Video Why study learning? If we had not been able to learn, we would have died out as a species long ago. Learning is the process that allows us to adapt to the changing conditions of the world around us. We can alter our actions until we find the behavior that leads us to survival and rewards, and we can eliminate actions that have been unsuccessful in the past. With- out learning, there would be no buildings, no agriculture, no lifesaving medicines, and no human civilization. 176 x Preface New Introduction to Psychology Video Series More than twenty new videos have been filmed for this edition. These videos cover a variety of key topics in introductory psychology, from careers in psychology to experiments to diagnosing and classifying disorders. CC Watch the Video Experiments: Experimental Group versus Control Group Information to the brain New Biological Artwork and Animations Interneuron A new art program designed for REVEL takes into account all of the visual media Sensory neurons that students now interact with; the artwork is designed in a contemporary Motor neurons Cofr osspsin-sael cctoiordn aesthetic that matches the graphical quality users see in other digital experiences such as video games. Skin receptors CC Figure 2. 6 The Spinal Cord Reflex The pain from the burning heat of the candle flame stimulates the afferent nerve fibers, which carry the message up to the interneurons in the middle of the spinal cord. The interneurons then send a message out by means of the efferent nerve fibers, causing the hand to jerk away from the flame. Emphasis on APA Learning Goals We have used the APA goals and assessment recommendations as guidelines for structuring our content. For the fifth edition, we have placed even greater emphasis on these goals. Updated Psychology in Action Chapter Psychology in Action This chapter has been restructured around Secrets for Surviving College and Improving Your Grades eight modules, which address many of the THINKING CRITICALLY BAfatseer dy ooun hwahvaet aynosuw kenreodw tnhoew q,u weshtaiot na,d wviactec hw tohueld v iydoeuo sthoa creo mwpitahr ea  tshtued aennstw juesrst sotfa orttihnegr osutut dine nctosl letog ey?ours. APA learning goals for the undergraduate The response entered here will be saved to your notes and may be collected by your instructor if he/she requires it. psychology major. Each module is accompanied by a study tip video: study skills, managing time, reading textbooks, getting the most out of lectures, studying for exams, writing papers, improving your memory, and your ethical responsibility. CC Watch the Video Why Study How to Study? Many students entering college have developed a system of taking notes, reading the textbook, and reviewing for exams that may have worked pretty well in the past; but what worked in grade school and high school may not work in college, where the expectations from teachers are higher and the workload is far greater. Students should develop skills in the following areas in order to do their absolute best in any college course: study methods, time management, effective reading of course materi- als, active listening and note taking, studying for exams, memory strategies, and writing papers. One final aspect of being a successful student involves being an ethical student—exactly how can you use the materials you find for your research paper, for example, without committing the sin of plagiarism (claiming the work of someone else as your own)? PIA-2